The initial integral link, of which the entire training process consists, is a separate training session. Lessons and other forms of individual practical sports activities have a number of common features typical of the structure of any rationally organized physical exercise (Chapter X). So, in each individual lesson there are three parts: preparatory (in sports it is called “warm-up”), main and final. The general methodological rules for their construction remain valid in sports as well.

Features of the structure of practical sports activities stem primarily from their focus on achieving the maximum training effect in relation to the chosen sport. Although the content of the classes may, depending on the stages of training and other circumstances, be both complex and narrowly focused, nevertheless, most of them are not characterized by a plurality of tasks to be solved. The solution of the whole set of tasks of sports improvement is achieved by increasing the total number of training sessions, up to several sessions during one day and up to 500 sessions per year for highly qualified athletes.

Often, the main content of a training session in sports can be only one type of motor activity, for example, cross-country running. The preparatory and final parts of the lesson in this case may also include mainly “running” material. The homogeneity of the content gives the lesson a special solidity: the preparatory and final parts acquire clearly defined service functions in relation to the main part, organically subordinate to it in content and structure, including duration. With a more varied content of the lesson, its structure naturally becomes more complicated, especially in the main part. This also applies to the order in which different exercises are combined, the alternation of loads and rest, etc., What makes it difficult to accurately control the training effect. But complex classes also have their advantages: the monotony of the load is more easily eliminated, the effect of switching is better used - a justified change in the nature of the activity. The share of complex and single-subject classes in training largely depends on the characteristics of sports specialization (for example, all-round athletes have a much larger share of complex classes than athletes specializing in individual sports exercises). And yet, the structure of a training session in sports is, as a rule, more monolithic than in other forms of physical education.

In general, training sessions in sports are characterized by increased motor density. It is provided, in particular, by the wide use of special variants of "circular training" (by the method of continuous long-term work, by the method of intensive interval work, etc.).

As an element of the structure of the training microcycle, each individual session is associated with previous and subsequent sessions. Its content and construction depend on the total number of classes in the microcycle, the total load in it, on the order of alternation of classes with different directions, characteristic for this microcycle, and the general mode of alternating classes with rest. This is especially evident in microcycles, which include daily and repeated training sessions during the day.

If, for example, three classes are held during the day, then the immediate effect of the first lesson will directly affect the preparatory part of the second lesson, the magnitude of the load in it and other elements of its structure and content; the construction of the third lesson will depend in a similar way on the total effect of the first and second lessons. In such conditions, in the total mass of training sessions, basic and additional are distinguished.

IN basic training sessions first of all, the main tasks outlined for a given microcycle of training (or a system of microcycles) are solved. These classes are distinguished by an extended volume of load and significant motor density, and therefore are usually accompanied by relatively long recovery processes (40-60 hours or more). Against this background, additional lessons. They may be characterized by various functions: a) strengthening the immediate effect of the main lesson; b) promoting recovery by switching to active recreation (additional classes of a predominantly restorative type); c) solution of particular tasks that are not the main ones at this stage of training (for example, maintaining individual components of general physical fitness at a special preparatory stage of training, partial development of formed motor skills). Depending on which of these functions is leading, the structure of additional classes is modified.

Fundamentals of building microcycles. A separate training microcycle consists of at least two phases: cumulative (where the total effect of training influences is mainly provided) and recovery (restorative training or complete rest). The minimum duration of the microcycle is two days (the ratio of the first and second phases is 1:1). However, such microcycles are relatively rare in practice, since their scope is too narrow for the implementation of the tasks of sports improvement (as fitness develops, short-term microcycles increasingly conflict with the need to increase the effectiveness of training effects). Often microcycles have a week or about a week duration, if special circumstances, about which

Some of them, it will be said below, do not require a different duration; in such microcycles, the cumulative and recovery phases can be repeated two or more times, and the main recovery phase coincides with the end of the microcycle.

Among the many factors and circumstances affecting the structure and duration of microcycles, the following are especially significant.

In turn, these variables depend on the characteristics of sports specialization and the level of preparedness of the athlete. The higher this level, topics The more, in principle, the main occupations can include a microcycle, the more significant the cumulative phases are expressed in it. In sports that require mainly the manifestation of endurance, classes are more often carried out against the background of incomplete recovery of working capacity than in high-speed and speed-strength sports.

2. Dynamics of fatigue-recovery processes and general
functional state of the body, due to the alternation
I eat training loads and rest, individual features
response to loads and biorhythmic factors.

Although the individual features of the adaptive reactions of the athlete's body during training have not yet been studied enough, there is no doubt that the parameters and other features of the cumulative and recovery phases in microcycles significantly depend on them. The same must be said about biorhythmic fluctuations in the functional state of the organism, such as metabolic-trophic biorhythms lasting several days. Some studies show that if the phases of training microcycles are consistent with the phases of these biorhythms, this has a positive effect on the development of fitness.

3. The general mode of life of an athlete, including the mode of his basics
noah educational or labor activity.

Training microcycles are often built in relation to the framework of the calendar week, especially in mass sports practice. The weekly cycle does not always fully meet the requirements of the optimal structure of the training process, but it facilitates its coordination with the main points of the general mode of life and activity. But in certain situations, other options for constructing microcycles are preferable.

4. The place of microcycles in the general system of building training
process.

The structure of microcycles naturally changes in certain details in the course of the development of the training process, depending on the change of its stages and periods. In other words, the structure of microcycles depends from their places in larger structures - mesocycles and macrocycles. So, at the stage of basic, fundamental training, microcycles should cover a particularly wide range of training sessions aimed at the comprehensive development of the athlete’s physical qualities, the formation of motor skills and abilities, and, if necessary, their restructuring, which most significantly affects the number of basic training sessions, the order of their alternation, the general dynamics of loads and other features of the construction of microcycles. On stages, immediately preceding the main competitions, the content of the classes narrows, as it were, specializes in accordance with competitive activities, the structure of microcycles is rebuilt in relation to the schedule of the upcoming competition (taking into account the number of starts, intervals between them, etc.).

Summarizing what has been said about the factors and conditions for building micro-training cycles, it is not difficult to conclude that they cannot have a single form that would be suitable for any particular case. The structure of microcycles inevitably, regularly changes depending on the logic of changing the content of the training process and external circumstances that affect its construction. By making appropriate changes to the content and structure of microcycles (by changing the sets of exercises in the classes, the number of basic and extra classes, the order of their alternation, the regime of loads and rest, etc.), the coach and the athlete provide the necessary general trend in the development of the training process, while leveling various kinds of external interference.

Types of microcycles. In the process of training, microcycles of several types alternate. The main ones are the actual training and competitive ones, and the additional ones are the leading and recovery ones.

Self-training microcycles on the basis of the predominant orientation of the content of the main classes included in them, they are divided into general preparatory And specially preparatory. The former are the main type of microcycles at the beginning of the preparatory period of a large training cycle and at some of its other stages associated with an increase in the proportion of general physical training. They are characterized, in particular, by the alternation of classes aimed in the aggregate at the development of all or most of the basic physical qualities of an athlete. Special preparatory microcycles are distinguished by an increased proportion of specialized work aimed at developing specific fitness; the order of alternation of classes in them is determined based on the need to create optimal conditions, primarily for the development of abilities and the improvement of skills that meet the specific features of the chosen sport. Such microcycles are the main type of microcycles in the immediate precompetitive training of an athlete.

Microcycles of both types have variants. According to the degree of training impact, some of them can be called “ordinary and”, others “shock and”. Ordinary microcycles are distinguished by a uniform increase in training loads, their significant volume, but an unlimited level of intensity in most individual sessions. For shock microcycles, along with a significant volume of loads, their high intensity is characteristic, due to which a particularly powerful training impulse is created.

Lead-in microcycles are built according to the rules of direct bringing the athlete to the competition. In such microcycles, a number of elements of the program and regime of the upcoming competition are modeled (distribution of loads and rest in accordance with the order of alternating days of performances and intervals between them,

reproduction of the order of performance during the day, etc.). At the same time, the specific content and construction of such microcycles are determined by the characteristics of the pre-start state of the athlete, the aftereffect of previous training sessions and the features of the chosen method of leading to the competition.

Competitive microcycles are, strictly speaking, a form of organization of not so much training as competitive activity. They are based on the mode of performance established by the official rules and regulations of a particular competition. In addition to the competition days, these microcycles include an operational setup phase on the day before it, inter-start phases if the competition is not on the same day, and a post-competition recovery phase. Thus, the entire organization of an athlete's behavior in competitive microcycles is aimed at ensuring an optimal state of readiness at the time of starts, promoting recovery and over-recovery of working capacity during the competition, and guaranteeing the full realization of opportunities in the final starts.

Recovery microcycles- a special form of organization of the athlete's activity regime, which is much less frequently used in the construction of training than the main types of microcycles. Recovery microcycles are usually introduced after a series of intense self-training microcycles (especially "shock"), causing a significant cumulation of the effect of loads, as well as after a series of important competitions. Microcycles of this type are characterized by a weakly expressed cumulative phase and an extended reducing phase. The total value of loads, especially their intensity, decreases, the number of days of active rest increases, and a contrasting change in the conditions of classes and the composition of exercises is widely practiced. All this together is aimed at optimizing recovery processes. Such microcycles are also called "unloading".

As can be seen, the types of microcycles are quite diverse. The possible variants of their combination in training mesocycles are even more diverse.

4.2. Structure of average training cycles (mesocycles)

Fundamentals of the structure of mesocycles. Microcycles of various types serve, figuratively speaking, as building blocks that make up mesocycles. (One mesocycle includes at least 2 microcycles. In current practice, mesocycles most often consist of 3-6 microcycles and have a total duration close to a month. The “set” of microcycles in this case varies depending on the general logic of the training process deployment and the features of its stages.

external sign middle cycles is repetitive

reproduction of a certain set of microcycles (in the same sequence) or replacement of a given set of microcycles by another set of microcycles.

If, for example, microcycles follow in the following order: ordinary - ordinary - shock - recovery, and then the same set of microcycles is repeated in the same order, then these are two mesocycles of the same type. If there is a change in the sets of microcycles in such, for example,

order: ordinary - shock - restorative, and then supply_

competitive - recovery, then there are also two mesocycles, but of a different type.

The structure of mesocycles is partly due to the same factors that were discussed in the characterization of microcycles, but its basis cannot be explained only by the laws operating within the microstructure. At the level of mesocycles, their own, specific patterns operate - the patterns of the development of fitness in a series of microcycles and the appropriate control of this process. Mesocycles are ultimately necessary because they allow you to optimally control the cumulative training effect of a series of microcycles, while ensuring a progressive trend in the development of fitness and preventing violations in adaptive (adaptive) processes that are possible in the case of chronic irrational accumulation of the effect of loads in a number of microcycles.

As already noted, the adaptive changes that training causes in various organs and systems of the body occur non-simultaneously, heterochronously. Therefore, to some extent, they seem to be late in relation to the general dynamics of training loads. In order to prevent dangerous discrepancies between them (expressed in the so-called overtraining), it is necessary to change the load trend in a series of microcycles in a certain way, namely: not only to steadily increase their overall level, but also to relatively reduce it in certain microcycles. This explains the appearance of medium waves in the dynamics of loads, which constitute one of the structural foundations of training mesocycles.

One of the factors that most likely affects both the duration of mesocycles and the nature of the distribution of loads in them are about-monthly biocycles, in particular the so-called physical biorhythms (23 days long, with 11-day phases of a relative increase and decrease in the level of some indicators of physical capacity).

This assumption has not yet received final confirmation. However, the mere fact of the existence of some circa-monthly biocycles (for example, menstrual cycles) is beyond doubt. There is already some research data that speaks in favor of taking into account the possible influence of biorhythms on the construction of average training cycles. Such factors, of course, do not fatally predetermine the specific result of an athlete's activity, but, obviously, it makes sense to take them into account in conjunction with other factors and conditions for building sports training.

The structure of mesocycles naturally changes in the process of training, primarily depending on the change in the content of the athlete's training in stages and periods of a large training cycle. On the structure and duration of individual meso-

cycles also significantly affect the system of competitions, the intervals between them, the patterns of cumulation of the effects of training and competitive loads, recovery processes and other significant factors of sports activity. All this causes a number of variations in the structure of mesocycles, represented by mesocycles of several types.

Types of mesocycles. Among the variants of mesocycles, some are the main ones throughout entire periods of the training process, while others are typical only for its individual stages and substages. The first include basic and competitive mesocycles, the second - retracting, control-preparatory, pre-competitive, recovery-preparatory and some others.

Retracting mesocycle. It begins a yearly or other large cycle of training. The retracting mesocycle most often includes 2-3 ordinary microcycles, which are completed by a recovery microcycle. The overall level of intensity of loads here is relatively low, while their volume can reach significant values, especially with specialization in stayer sports. The composition of the training means is predominantly of a general preparatory nature. The number of such mesocycles depends primarily on the specific state of the athlete at the beginning of a large training cycle, his individual adaptive capabilities and the nature of the previous stage of training. If there were no emergency circumstances (diseases, injuries, etc.), they are often limited to just one retracting meso-cycle.

Basic mesocycle. This is the main type of mesocycles of the preparatory period of training (the period of fundamental preparation in a large training cycle). It is in them that the main tasks of training are realized, the main training work is carried out on the formation of new and the transformation of previously mastered sports motor skills, the most significant training loads are introduced, leading to an increase in the functional capabilities of the body. Mesocycles of this type are used at various stages of training in several ways. According to their predominant content, they can be general preparatory and special training, and according to the characteristics of the impact on the dynamics of training, they can be developing and stabilizing.

Basic mesocycles of a developing character play a primary role in the achievement of a new level of performance by an athlete, in the transition to a new, higher level of fitness. In connection with this, they differ in especially significant parameters of training loads (their total volume in high-class athletes only in exercises of a special preparatory nature can reach, for example, 600 - 800 km or more for runners-stayers, 200-300 km or more for swimmers .

1500-2000 or more barbell lifts for weightlifters). Such cycles alternate with stabilizing ones, which are characterized by a temporary suspension of the growth of loads at the achieved level, What facilitates adaptation to previously presented unusual training requirements, contributes to the completion and consolidation of the induced positive adaptive rearrangements.

In all variants of basic mesocycles, their main elements are self-training microcycles, but in different combinations. Moreover, in some variants, the basic cycle is built only from varieties of these microcycles (for example, from three ordinary and one shock or two ordinary and two shock, alternating with each other), while in others, a recovery microcycle is additionally introduced (for example, one ordinary, two shock and one recovery). The total number of basic mesocycles depends, among other things, on the time that an athlete has for fundamental preparation for important competitions, and individual characteristics of fitness development.

Control and preparatory mesocycle. This type of average cycles of training is, as it were, a transitional form. from basic mesocycles to competitive ones. Self-training work is combined here with participation in competitions, which are mainly of control and training significance, that is, they are subordinated to the tasks of preparing for the main competitions. The control-preparatory mesocycle may consist, for example, of two training microcycles and two competition-type microcycles (without a special introduction to the starts).

Depending on the general course of the development of fitness and the shortcomings identified by the control starts, the content of training sessions in such a mesocycle can acquire a different focus. So, in some cases, it is necessary to intensify special preparatory exercises (when insufficiently high rates of development of special fitness are revealed), in others - to stabilize or even reduce the level of loads (if symptoms of chronic fatigue are detected). When serious technical or tactical flaws are found in control starts, their elimination becomes one of the critical tasks both in this and subsequent mesocycles.

Precompetitive mesocycle. As a special form of building a training session, this mesocycle is typical of the stage of direct preparation for the main competition of the year (or one of the main competitions). The features of the pre-competitive mesocycle are determined by the fact that it is necessary to fully simulate the mode of the upcoming competition, ensure adaptation to its specific conditions and at the same time create conditions for the greatest implementation of the overall effect of all previous preparations in the upcoming decisive starts.

The main structural elements of the pre-competitive mesocycle are the actual training and model-competitive

innovative microcycles. The general trend in the dynamics of loads in them is characterized, as a rule, by an early decrease in the total volume of training loads before the main competition. At the same time, the skillful use of the mechanisms of "delayed transformation" of the cumulative effect of training is of particular importance. The phenomenon of "retarded transformation" is that the dynamics of sports results seem to lag behind the dynamics of the volume of training loads, so the most significant sports result is observed not at the moment when the total volume of loads is the largest, but only after it has stabilized or decreased. In this regard, in the process of direct preparation for the competition, the problem of regulating the dynamics of loads is brought to the fore in such a way that their overall effect is transformed into a sports result at the time of decisive starts.

If there is not one, but two or more equally important competitions in the annual cycle, then before each of them a pre-competitive mesocycle may be introduced with changes arising from the characteristics of the competition conditions (for example, if it takes place in unusual climatic or geographical conditions, precompetitive preparation is carried out in similar conditions). When the competition is not distinguished by increased responsibility and specific conditions, direct preparation for it is limited to the introductory microcycle.

Competitive mesocycle. This is the predominant type of mesocycles during the main competitions, when there are several of them and they follow each other at intervals commensurate with the duration of the average cycles. In the simplest cases, the competitive mesocycle includes one lead-in and one competitive microcycle or lead-in, competition and recovery microcycles. Depending on the competition system, it is modified, and it often includes microcycles, including lead-in competitions. In addition, the structure of competitive mesocycles, as well as the frequency of their reproduction and the order of alternation with mesocycles of a different type, are decisively influenced by the patterns of maintaining sports form.

Restorative-preparatory and restorative-supporting mesocycles. The first one is similar in a number of its features to the basic mesocycle, but includes an additional number of recovery microcycles (for example, two recovery and two ordinary training ones). The second is characterized by an even softer training regime and more wide use of the switching effect by changing the forms, content and conditions of training sessions. Mesocycles of this type are necessary for a long period saturated with many important competitions, within which these mesocycles are located between competitions (hence

another name for the mesocycles under consideration is “intermediate”). In addition, recovery-preparatory and recovery-supporting mesocycles constitute the final period of a large training cycle (transition period).

Mesocycles of all these types are a kind of building blocks that make up the stages and periods of large training cycles. The number of mesocycles of one type or another and the order of their combination in the structure of macrocycles depend primarily on the patterns of periodization of the year-round training process and the specific conditions for its construction.

4.3. The structure of multi-month training cycles

4.3.1. Fundamentals of periodization of sports training

In a yearly, semi-annual or other multi-month training cycle, as a rule, three periods are distinguished: preparatory (the period of fundamental training) *, competitive (the period of the main competitions) and transitional. Such a construction of a training macrocycle is based on the patterns of acquisition, preservation and temporary loss of sports form.

sportswear called the state of the athlete's optimal (best) readiness for achievements, which is acquired under certain conditions in each macrocycle of training. The sports form expresses the harmonious unity of all sides (components) of the athlete's optimal readiness to achieve: physical, mental, sports-technical and tactical. Moreover, the sports form is characterized not just by the presence of these components, but by their harmonic ratio, which provides a certain level of sports achievements in a given large training cycle. To assess the sports form, a number of physiological, medical control, psychological and complex criteria are used. Its main holistic indicator is sports results, since only V All aspects of an athlete's readiness to achieve find their integral expression in them as in a focus. However, it is possible to judge sports form by sports results only when they are demonstrated with a certain frequency, under comparable conditions and evaluated in objective indicators (measures)**. Since it is not always possible to meet these requirements, when evaluating sports form, in addition to sports results, a number of particular criteria are involved: indicators

* The second of the given names of the period is more accurate, but in the specialized literature the first is more often given (because of its brevity).

** Approximately, it can be considered that a progressive athlete is in shape if he shows a result that is close (within 2-3 %) to the previous best achievement or exceeding it. For scientific purposes, more stringent criteria apply (see lit. I-2).

control exercises designed to assess individual motor qualities and skills of an athlete, data from medical and biological tests, etc.

The totality of the research and practical information on sports form accumulated to date indicates that the process of its development has a phase character - it proceeds in the order of a successive change of three phases: acquisition, preservation (relative stabilization) and temporary loss.

First phase- this is the formation or improvement of the prerequisites for a sports form, as well as its initial formation as an integral system of components. At this time, figuratively speaking, first of all, the building material from which the sports uniform building will be erected is accumulated, its foundation is laid or strengthened. First of all, we are talking about a significant increase in the level of the functional capabilities of the athlete's body, the comprehensive development of his physical and mental qualities, the acquisition and restructuring of motor skills and abilities. On this basis, the sports uniform itself is formed in its original form. Naturally, its specific parameters depend primarily on the quality of the foundation laid.

Second phase is characterized by the relative stabilization of the sports form as an integral system of components that ensure the optimal readiness of the athlete to demonstrate achievements within the current large training cycle. A radical restructuring of these components in this phase is not advisable, since this would mean the loss of sports form. At the same time, during the period of its preservation, to some extent, further improvement of everything that directly affects sports results takes place. Therefore, they increase to a certain extent within the limits allowed by the laws of maintaining a sports form.

Third phase differs in that under the influence of the regulation of the training process, the specific fitness temporarily decreases relatively, there is some extinction and partial destruction of the functional connections that stabilized the previously acquired form. However, this does not mean that the vital functions of the body are violated. In the case of a rational organization of the general mode of life and the mode of training, the temporary loss of sports form does not occur to the detriment of normal life - in this phase, general recovery processes are deployed.

The temporary loss of sports form is just as natural a phase in the process of its development as the previous phases. The acquisition and preservation of a sports form is associated with significant difficulties of an exogenous and endogenous nature: increasing training loads, multiple limiting self-mobilization necessary to achieve high sports performance, mental tension brought by participation in responsible competitions, the need to maintain a delicate balance of sports form components in a constantly changing external environment. environment, etc. These difficulties can become excessive and cause undesirable consequences if one tries to maintain sports

form is unnecessarily long. But it's not only that. A sports form acquired at one or another stage of perfection is a state that is optimal for a given (and only for a given!) stage. For the next, higher level, it will no longer be optimal. Therefore, the desire to constantly maintain once acquired sports form would be tantamount to a desire to stand still. To move forward, you need to “dump” the old form and acquire a new one in the next big cycle of training.

The phase nature of the development of a sports form contains a natural prerequisite for the periodization of the training process. There is a regular relationship between the phases of sports form development and periods of a large training cycle. Namely: the formation, preservation and temporary loss of sports form occur as a result of training influences, the nature of which changes, in turn, depending on the onset of these phases. Accordingly, three periods alternate in the training process: preparatory, competitive, transitional.

These periods of training are essentially nothing more than successive stages of the process of managing the development of sports form. Objective possibilities make it possible to directly influence the phases of its development, expediently changing them both in the direction of reduction and in the direction of lengthening. Of course, it is impossible to limitlessly shorten or lengthen these phases indefinitely, since their terms are also largely determined by the internal laws of the development of the body and depend on a number of specific conditions: the level of preliminary preparedness of the athlete, his individual characteristics, the characteristics of the chosen sport, the system of sports competitions, etc. e. The preparatory period, in principle, cannot be shorter than it is necessary in these specific conditions for the acquisition of a sports uniform; the competitive period should not be longer than is allowed by the possibilities of maintaining sports form without prejudice to further progress; the timing of the transition period depends primarily on the total amount of previous loads and the time required for the full rehabilitation of the body.

The total duration of periods of a large training cycle in existing practice is often timed to one-year, half-year or close to them. As experience and special studies show, such a cycle duration is in many cases quite sufficient to ensure the progressive development of a sports form. But other options are not excluded, and relatively longer cycles are preferable when specializing in sports that require extreme manifestations of endurance, as well as in cases where particularly fundamental training is needed.

The duration of individual periods in multi-month cycles, according to the available data, it is advisable to set approximately within the following limits:

preparatory period - from 2-3 months (mainly in semi-annual cycles) to 5-6 months (in annual cycles);

competitive period - from 1.5-2 to 4-5 months;

transitional period - from 3-4 to 6 weeks.

Of the external conditions on which the choice of specific periods of training periods depends, the sports calendar. By determining the dates of official competitions, he thereby limits the time frame for which the preparation of an athlete should be planned. The system of calendar competitions significantly affects the structure of the competition period and the duration of training periods. At the same time, the sports calendar should be planned taking into account the objectively necessary periodization of the training process - only in this case it will contribute to its optimal construction. This implies, in particular, a clear ranking of competitions according to the degree of their responsibility and functions, as well as their rational distribution in the training cycle in accordance with the characteristics of the training periods (for example, in the preparatory period, limited liability competitions are appropriate, which mainly have control and preparatory and training character; in the competitive period - the main, most responsible and leading competitions).

A well-known influence on the timing of training periods and the selection of training means in seasonal sports is exerted by climatic conditions. However, in principle, they are not the determining factor in the construction of training. With the development of the material and technical base of sports, the expansion of the possibility of rapid movement to different geographical areas and the improvement of training methods, the influence of seasonal factors on the training process is reduced to nothing.

4.3.2. Features of training in different periods of the macrocycle

Within the framework of a large training cycle, both the content and the construction of the training periodically change to a certain extent. The main features of these changes are summarized as follows.

Preparation period. The ultimate function of training in this period is to ensure the acquisition of a sports form that would guarantee the achievement of results corresponding to the capabilities of the athlete in this macrocycle. The period includes two major stages - general preparatory and special preparatory. The first of them is often longer, especially for novice athletes.

General preparatory stage. The main focus of training at this stage is the creation, expansion and improvement of the prerequisites for the formation of a sports form. The main of these prerequisites are: increasing the overall level of the body's functional capabilities, the versatile development of physical abilities, replenishing the fund of motor skills and abilities.

Rice. Fig. 52. Scheme of ratios of general and special training in the macrocycle of training (in shares of total time spent)

Double shading is a zone of probable variations depending on the level of preparedness of athletes, the characteristics of sports, periods of training, etc.

Therefore, often the main part of the training content at this stage is general preparation (hence the name of the stage - “general preparatory”).

This does not mean that the share of general training here always far exceeds the share of special training. Their specific proportions significantly depend on the level of preliminary preparedness of the athlete, specialization, sports experience and other circumstances (Fig. 52).

For example, such ratios of time spent on general and special training, respectively, as 3:1 (mainly for beginner athletes), 3:2, 2:2 are justified. It is important that general preparation always occupies a greater place in the first stage of the preparatory period than in subsequent ones. Here, exercises of a versatile (in relation to the subject of specialization) impact are more widely represented, and more free variations in their use are allowed.

Special training at the first stage creates specific prerequisites for sports form, ensuring the development of individual components of special fitness, mastering or restructuring the skills and abilities that are part of the technique and tactics of the chosen sport. The main means are selectively directed specially-preparatory exercises. Integral types of competitive exercises are used at the first stage in a more limited scope and mainly in the form of modeling upcoming competitive actions or reduced competitive activities (for example, for a runner - an estimate at a distance shorter than the main competitive one, for an all-around athlete - certain types of all-around program). Too frequent reproduction of competitive actions in the same form in which they were mastered in the previous training macrocycle is inappropriate here, since this would only reinforce old skills and thereby limit the possibilities of advancing to new level sportsmanship.

The general trend in the dynamics of training loads at the first stage is characterized by a gradual increase in their volume (mainly) and intensity (Fig. 53). At this stage, the main preparatory work is carried out, creating

providing a solid foundation for athletic performance. The total intensity of the load increases only insofar as this does not exclude the possibility of increasing the total amount of preparatory work, until the beginning of the next stage of training. Such load dynamics at the first stage is natural, since the accelerated increase in their overall intensity, although it does not sometimes exclude a rapid temporary increase in fitness, cannot guarantee the stability of the sports form, because its stability depends primarily on the total amount of preparatory work and the duration of the period, during which it is performed. These features of load dynamics manifest themselves in different ways, depending on the type of exercises and their purpose (see Fig. 53). The volume of loads in preparatory exercises grows to the greatest extent, which are aimed at providing especially laborious adaptive restructurings, leading to a general increase in the level of working capacity. The volume of loads in the exercises simulating the upcoming competitive activity is growing in comparison with

Special preparatory exercises

Rice. 53. Scheme of trends in the dynamics of volume and intensity of loads in different groups of training exercises by stages of the preparatory period of training (some typical options):

0 0 | and 0 0 -2 - the dynamics of the volume of loads in exercises of a predominantly general preparatory nature; and 0 .| and I o2 - tendencies of change of intensity in these exercises; Os 1 and Os-a - the dynamics of the volume of loads in exercises of a predominantly special-preparatory nature (including model-competitive ones); I s b I s -2 -intensity change trends in these exercises (other explanations in the text)

strictly limited limits, but their intensity from the very beginning should be adequate to that which is characteristic of the programmed sports result. Including these exercises in the content of classes at the first stage, it is important not to distort the general trend of a gradual increase in loads and, at the same time, start in advance to influence the specific mechanisms of working capacity in the chosen sport.

Typical forms of mesocycles at the first stage are retracting and basic. The latter often have a greater extent than in subsequent stages. The number of mesocycles of this type depends on the level of preliminary preparedness of the athlete, the total duration of the preparatory period and other circumstances.

Special preparatory stage. Training at this stage is restructured in such a way as to ensure the direct formation of a sports form. Its fundamental prerequisites, laid down at the first stage, must now be optimized and brought together as harmonic components of the athlete's readiness for the target (in the current macrocycle) achievements. Based on this, the entire content of the training is focused mainly on the development of special fitness, specific performance, in-depth development and improvement of selected technical and tactical skills in the form in which they will be used in the upcoming main competitions. At the same time, special mental preparation for these competitions is carried out.

A sports form is directly created in the process and as a result of performing exercises, which at first partially model, and then fully reproduce the upcoming competitive actions in all details. Therefore, no matter how important the general training is, at the second stage of the preparatory period its share decreases, and the share of special training increases accordingly (approximately it is 60-70% or more of the total time allotted for training - see Fig. 52 ). The composition of special training means is also changing - the proportion of competitive exercises in their integral model-training and actual competitive forms is gradually increasing.

Competitions, as the preparatory period is completed, take an increasingly significant place in training. At the same time, they retain mainly a preparatory character (control and training competitions, estimates, etc.) and organically enter the structure of the training process as a specific means of preparing for the upcoming main competitions. In this regard, one of the typical forms of building a training session at the second stage is a control and preparatory mesocycle, which includes a series of limited liability competitions (they can also be official, provided that this does not deprive them, in essence, of a preparatory value).

Training loads during the second stage continue to increase, but not in all respects (see Fig. 53). First of all, the absolute intensity of special-preparatory and competitive exercises increases, which is expressed in an increase in speed, pace, power and other speed-strength indicators of movements. As the intensity increases, the total volume of training loads first stabilizes, and then begins to decrease. This is explained, firstly, by the need to create conditions for a significant increase in intensity - the leading factor in the development of special fitness at the second stage, and, secondly, by the need to facilitate the flow of long-term changes caused in the body by the mechanism of delayed transformation by a large amount of preparatory work performed at the first stage. stage.

The total volume of loads is reduced at the beginning due to general preparatory exercises. Against this background, the volume of special preparatory exercises continues to increase. Then this component of the total volume of loads also stabilizes and partially decreases. The exception, however, is the competitive and the most appropriate specially-preparatory exercises, the volume of which continues to increase in total terms.

Due to the increase in the overall intensity of training, the average waves of the load dynamics are often shortened (for example, from 6 to 3-4 weeks). Accordingly, the structure of training meso-cycles changes, shock and unloading microcycles are more often introduced into them. If one of the most important competitions immediately follows the preparatory period, then the final part of the period is used to build a pre-competitive mesocycle.

Preparatory period options. The structure of the preparatory period as a whole can be represented as a system of different types of mesocycles, the composition of which varies depending on the total duration of the period and other circumstances, and can be either complete or reduced.

For example, under the conditions of a one-year training cycle with an extended preparatory period, typical, in particular, for stayer sports, the following system of mesocycles is appropriate:

retracting - basic (general preparatory, developing) - basic (stabilizing) - basic (special-preparatory, developing) - control and preparatory - basic - precompetitive.

This example shows the complete set of preparatory mesocycles. In abbreviated versions, individual mesocycles, primarily from the number of repeating ones, seem to fall out, and their functions to one degree or another pass to mesocycles similar or similar in type. Here, for example, is one of the possible options for the structure of the preparatory period in a six-month training cycle, typical for speed-strength sports:

retracting mesocycle - the first basic mesocycle - the second basic mesocycle "- control and preparatory mesocycle.

These examples, of course, do not exhaust all the variety of possible options.

Modern research on the problems of the structure of the training process, they are aimed, in particular, at revealing all the richness of options for building training in the preparatory period, accurately determining the conditions under which they become appropriate, and selecting the best options for specific conditions. The most general criterion of their optimality is the sports result achieved in the end of the preparatory period. In principle, it should exceed the best result achieved in the corresponding phase of the previous training macrocycle.

Competitive period (the period of the main competitions). The specific functions of training in this period are maintaining sports form throughout the entire time of participation in major competitions and creating conditions for maximizing its implementation in sports achievements. Against the background of the relative stabilization of sports form, as already noted, there is a further improvement of all those qualities, skills and abilities that underlie the optimal readiness of an athlete for achievements. Some of its components may undergo quite significant changes when adapting to the conditions of the next competitions, however, radical restructuring during this period is inappropriate.

The main aspects of the training content in the competitive period are specialized in relation to the requirements of competitive activity and direct preparation for it. Physical training acquires the character of applied-functional training for extreme competitive stresses. It is aimed primarily at ensuring maximum (in the current macrocycle) special fitness, maintaining it at this level and maintaining general fitness. Sports-technical and tactical training ensures bringing the selected forms of competitive activity to the highest possible degree of perfection. This implies, on the one hand, the consolidation of previously mastered skills and abilities, and on the other hand, an increase in their variability, the possibility of using them in various conditions of wrestling due to the finest polishing of coordination of movements, improvement of options for technical and tactical actions and the development of tactical thinking. In special mental training, direct attunement to a specific competition, mobilization for the highest manifestations of physical and spiritual forces, as well as operational regulation of volitional and emotional states in the process of competition, education right attitude to possible sports failures and maintaining a positive emotional tone.

The special physiological and emotional background created by the situation and the competition process itself enhances the impact of training exercises and contributes to the highest manifestation of the body's functional capabilities due to reserves that are difficult (and often impossible) to fully mobilize.

vat in routine training sessions. Competitions also play an indispensable role in improving sports and technical skills, accumulating sports experience, developing specific competitive endurance and mental stability. Because of all this, when a sports uniform is acquired, competitions become the most important means and method of further improvement.

The frequency of performances and the total number of competitions depend, as already mentioned, on a number of conditions, primarily on the level of training of the athlete, his competitive endurance and the characteristics of the sport. Nevertheless, the period under review should be full of multiple starts to improve sportsmanship.

In most speed-strength sports and in sports games, highly qualified athletes perform in the phase of sports form weekly and more often (20-40 competitions or more within the competition period); in sports that require the utmost manifestation of endurance, as well as in combat sports and all-around events, the intervals between competitions are usually longer.

Most of the competitions, including those within the competition period, are used as a means of preparing for the main competitions, which are a kind of key points for building a training session: the entire system of directly bringing an athlete to the maximum result is guided by them, in relation to them, the dynamics of loads and etc. (Fig. 54). The intervals between such competitions are established not only with the expectation of a full restoration of working capacity, but also in accordance with all the requirements of direct preparation for decisive starts. This takes into account, if possible, all the specific features of these competitions: the program of performances, the characteristics of rivals, the specifics of external conditions, etc. The number of main competitions usually does not exceed 3-5 in one macrocycle (options depend mainly on the skill level of the athlete and the characteristics of the sport ).

The remaining competitions, if they are subordinated to the interests of leading to the main starts and are, in essence, preparatory in nature, do not cause a long aftereffect. The interval between them can be much less than between the main competitions. In principle, it usually does not exceed the time required to restore operational performance after the previous competitive load. For sufficiently trained athletes, serial starts with shortened intervals (for example, 2-3 days) are also effective. Such a mode of competitive loads is similar to the mode of compacted training microcycles, some of the classes in which are carried out against the background of incomplete restoration of individual functions, due to which especially serious requirements are imposed on the athlete's body, ultimately stimulating high competitive performance.

Main competition immediately preceding it

Rice. 54. Scheme of the trend in the dynamics of training loads in the structure of a competitive period of long duration (some typical options): 0 0 - volume of loads in general preparatory exercises (including those used as means of active recreation); О с - the volume of loads in special preparatory exercises (о - in speed-strength sports, b- in stayer sports); And c - intensity in these exercises; Ci. g. h. 4 - competitive mesocycles; VP - recovery and preparatory mesocycle; triangles and rhombuses denote competitions of various ranks

the lead-in microcycle and the short-term post-competition recovery phase, as already mentioned, make up the competitive mesocycle - the main structural link of the competitive period. In the simplest case, when this period is relatively short, it entirely consists of two or three such mesocycles.

With a long duration of the competitive period (3-4 months or more), its structure becomes more complicated. Intermediate, and in certain cases, pre-competitive mesocycles become obligatory links of such a period. Intermediate mesocycles (restorative-preparatory and restorative-maintaining) are needed insofar as under the conditions of some competitive mesocycles it is not possible to provide sufficient training loads in terms of volume that would stimulate the development of general fitness or, at least, would guarantee the preservation of its previously achieved level. In addition, intermediate mesocycles are needed to prevent undesirable consequences of too long cumulation of the effect of repeated acute competitive loads and to counteract the monotony introduced by repeated repetition of competitions. The need for pre-competitive mesocycles, as already mentioned, arises when responsible

competitions that differ sharply in their conditions, for example, climatic ones, and therefore require a rather long adaptation to them.

General order the alternation of mesocycles of different types in the competitive period, therefore, largely depends on the duration of the period, the system of distribution of competitions in it and on their conditions.

For example, the following variants of alternation of mesocycles are possible:

1) the first competitive - the second competitive - intermediate (recovery-supporting) - the third competitive;

2) the first competitive - the second competitive - intermediate (restorative-supporting) - the third competitive - intermediate (restorative-preparatory) - the fourth competitive;

3) first competitive - second competitive - intermediate (recovery-supporting) - third competitive - pre-competitive - fourth competitive.

The allocation of intermediate stages in the structure of the competitive period is accompanied, as a rule, by differences in the dynamics of sports results. This must be distinguished from the actual loss of sports form, since its main components are most likely preserved during changes - only the operational readiness to demonstrate a sports result is temporarily reduced. The current studies of the variants of the structure of the competitive period reveal their practical diversity and at the same time show that all of them are subject in one way or another to the laws of optimal regulation of sports form.

Transition period. This period in the system of year-round training differs sharply from the previous ones in many respects. The main point of isolating it is to prevent the chronic effect of training and competitive loads from developing into overtraining, to prevent the exhaustion of the body's adaptive capabilities, and to restore them with the help of active rest. At the same time, this is not a break in training; conditions must be created here to maintain a certain level of fitness and thereby guarantee continuity between the ending and the next large cycles of training. Naturally, in conditions of active rest it is impossible to maintain the maximum level of fitness, especially special, but you can save it enough to start a new macrocycle of training from a higher starting position than the previous one.

The main content of classes in the transitional period is general physical training, carried out in the active rest mode. The latter is understood in this case broadly: not as an alternation of the work of various muscle groups (the narrow meaning of the term "active rest"), but as a contrasting change in the nature and conditions of activity in such a way as to achieve acceleration of chronic recovery processes related to adaptive capabilities - physical rehabilitation in broad sense. In tre-

During the training sessions of the transitional period, a complex of some special preparatory exercises can also be used in order to maintain special fitness and eliminate particular shortcomings in the technique of movement. But this is justified only on the condition that there are no obstacles to obtaining the full effect of outdoor activities.

In the transitional period, monotonous loads of the same type are contraindicated; especially needed is a variety of exercises and training conditions (in particular, conducting them in various natural conditions - in the forest, in the mountains), pronounced positive emotions. It is important to provide the athlete at this time with the most unlimited opportunities for choosing an interesting subject of training, if only they would be beneficial without turning into a forced load.

The transitional period usually includes no more than 2-3 mesocycles, built according to the type of restorative-supporting and restorative-preparatory. In this case, the general mode of organizing classes should not be stereotyped (for example, the basis for organizing classes in a significant part of the transition period may be the free mode of a multi-day hiking trip).

Like other periods of training, the transition period does not have sharp boundaries. As the functional and adaptive capabilities of the athlete's body are restored, this period turns into the preparatory period for the next training macrocycle. In this case, the criterion should, of course, be not only the subjective desire to start solving new, more difficult tasks, but also the improvement of the body's adaptive responses to increasing training loads, which is established through a comprehensive medical and pedagogical control.

Is there always a transitional period after the competitive period? Not always. Such a sequence in the structure of the training macrocycle is natural when the preparatory and competitive periods were sufficiently long and associated with sufficiently significant training and competitive loads, which gave a chronically increasing cumulative effect, thereby causing serious changes in the athlete's body and mental tension.

Instead of a transitional period, a relatively short-term unloading phase of the recovery mesocycle or even microcycle is sometimes introduced. This happens most often when an athlete for some reason did not receive sufficiently high loads (he did not train enough in the preparatory period, he did not compete much). In such situations, it makes sense to build the training process according to the type double macrocycle, where after the competitive period comes the second preparatory, then the second competitive and only then the transitional period. Such a construction of training is also justified when using semi-annual cycles, as well as in some other cases.

4.4. Sports training as a long-term process

It is more than difficult to imagine in detail the whole process of many years of playing sports. It includes an almost infinite number of variables. In a general overview, three stages can be distinguished as the largest links in it: 1) the stage of basic training;

2) the stage of maximum realization of sports opportunities,

3) the stage of sports longevity. Each of them covers large stages, consisting, as a rule, of a number of annual or semi-annual cycles.

Changes in the training process, expressed in the change of stages and stages, occur according to the laws of the formation of sportsmanship and further sports improvement. Biologically, the change in the stages of this process is due to a natural change with age in the capabilities of the individual (progressive age development forms and functions of the body, their stabilization in adulthood and subsequent age-related involution). At the same time, the features of the stages of many years of training reflect the originality of the general conditions of his life and activity in different periods. life path: change in the budget of free time and the overall load during schooling, military service, work, etc.

Stages and stages of long-term training do not have strictly fixed boundaries. Their beginning and completion depend not only on the calendar age of the athlete, but also on his sports talent, the characteristics of individual development and adaptation to sports loads, the specifics of sports specialization, training experience and the conditions for organizing sports activities.

Stage of basic training. The approximate duration of this stage is 4-6 years (with significant deviations, depending primarily on individual sports talent and the characteristics of the sport chosen for specialization). The main goal in basic sports training is to lay a full-fledged foundation for future achievements: to ensure the comprehensive development of the body, to increase the overall level of its functional and adaptive capabilities.

This is the simplest musical form of homophonic music. A period is a relatively complete musical thought, completed by a cadenza in the original or another key.

The periods are different structure. The classical style is characterized by a normal period, in which the exposition type of presentation is clearly expressed (8-16 volumes). The main major parts of the period are sentences. Sentences usually have two phrases, which consist of motives. The first sentence is the initial one, the second one is the response. The sentences are divided and linked by a middle cadence on the Dominant. At the end - cadence on the Tonic. There is consistency, a roll call of cadences - the first interrogative answers the second affirmative (T - D - D - T). An authentic cadence is formed, which imparts harmonic stability and integrity.

Example: Mozart, Sonata No. 11, part 1.

The typical structure of the period took shape in the song and dance genres of homophonic music and was consolidated thanks to the clarity and memorability of musical thought.

The period is characterized melodic-thematic unity. It is expressed in:

1. Almost complete similarity of sentences, except for their endings (in this case, the reprise sign does not form a form).

2. In a partial repetition of the material.

Example: Beethoven, Sonata No. 1, pt. 2

Beethoven, Sonata No. 7, part 2.

3. In repetition modified by ornamentation.

Beethoven, Sonata No. 15, part 1.

Plays an important role climax location. If the second sentence repeats most of the first, then often both of them have the same climax. The smaller part of the first sentence is repeated more often and this contributes to the presence of a climax in the second sentence.

Schumann. "Dreams".

Medtner. Sonata-remembrance.

There are exceptions: the climax at the beginning of a sentence:

Chopin. Mazurka, op. 67 #4.

By thematic development periods are - repeated and non-repeated structure. Periods are also divided into square and non-square.

Non-squareness can be organic (Glinka. Waltz-fantasy, 3 + 3 volumes), due to expansion and addition.

The period may be single tone and modulating (Beethoven. The theme of joy, part 1, 9 symphony). In a period that is generally one-tone, deviations to other keys are possible. Such a period is called modulation.

Beethoven. Symphony No. 5, part 2.

The modulating period ends in a new key: for major, as a rule, in Dominant, for minor - in parallel.

Wagner. "Tannhäuser" March of the Pilgrims.

The period is:

· Closed - ends on the Tonic of the main key;

· open - ends on the Dominant (Beethoven, sonata No. 8, part 1, ch.t.); ends in a new key.

Sometimes there are periods of 4 sentences, usually in complex meters.

Schumann. Novelette, op.21 No.1.

There are periods of three sentences.

Grieg. Norwegian dance.

The most common are periods with thematically similar sentences, of which the second is extended in comparison with the first.

1. Extension - the repetition of any construction with an increase in its length is an internal expansion, since the construction grows, acquires a greater length, but still remains one construction with one cadence. Expansion is associated with the emotional buildup of the climax.

Extension tricks:

· Repetition of any element - simple variation, sequence-like, imitative (Tchaikovsky, "Barcarolla", "January").

· More complex development techniques with the introduction of new keys.

· Stretching of cadence harmonies (Lisa's aria from The Queen of Spades).

Internal expansion occurs before the appearance of Tonic.

2. Addition - an additional formation leading to the same harmony on which the main cadenza ended. This is a series of additional constructions, affirming the main idea. The addition occurs after the Tonic. This is an external addition (Beethoven. Sonata No. 1, Minuet).

PERIOD ANALYSIS SCHEME:

1. Tonality.

2. period boundaries.

3. repeated or non-repeated.

4. square or non-square.

5. closed or open.

6. single tone, modulating, modulating.

7. cadence analysis.

8. define the climax.

9. find out the reason for the non-squareness.

10. features of style, texture.

WORKS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE INITIAL PERIODS:

Beethoven. Sonata No. 3, parts 2, 3, 4.

Sonata No. 4, parts 2 and 3.

Sonata No. 7, part 2

Sonata No. 5, part 1.

Sonata No. 27, parts 1 and 2.

DIFFICULT PERIOD.

It consists of two melodically similar sentences with different cadences, each of which is itself a typical period in its internal structure.

Chaikovsky. Nocturne in C sharp minor. There are two sentences (D - T), each as an explicit period. Four identical beginnings are a hallmark of a difficult period.

The themes of works are often presented in the form of a period, and thus the period is included, as a separate part, into a larger whole.

There are short works representing a period. Thus, a period can be an independent form (as a rule, these are miniatures, preludes - small independent pieces in which one mood develops).

Chopin developed this form extensively.

An independent period rarely has a clear structure. But there are exceptions: Chopin. Prelude No. 7.

Structural contrasts are more typical for such plays (the presence of expansion in the second sentence, which creates movement and climax, emotional growth).

Chopin. Preludes in E minor, B minor.

Period of three sentences: Chopin. Prelude No. 9.

Difficult period: Chopin. Prelude #10.

Such forms are typical for Scriabin's preludes, Lyadov's plays, Rimsky's romances - Korsakov, Rachmaninoff. In vocal music, a complex period, as an independent form, is used in a song-couplet structure.

WORKS FOR ANALYSIS:

Grieg. "Love you".

Borodin. "False note".

Chopin. Prelude No. 6, Waltz No. 7, p.1.

Chaikovsky. "Morning Reflection"

General features of the period. Melodic-thematic relationships

In most periods, the expositional type of presentation is more or less clearly expressed, since they constantly contain the initial or repeated presentation of the topic. In this regard, the melodic-thematic unity is characteristic of the period. It can be expressed in almost complete similarity of sentences, except for their endings:

in partial repetition of material from the first sentence in the second sentence:

in repetition, modified by ornamentation or transfer to a different pitch, with a different harmony, etc. (see examples 33, 56a).
Finally, in the absence of repetitions, the nature of the melodic-rhythmic and textured pattern is usually maintained without the formation of significant contrasts (see examples 48, 56e). More details on this issue - below (see § 26).
If the second sentence repeats most of the first, then often both of them have the same melodic peaks and there is no common main climax in the period (see example 16). But more often the smaller part is repeated, which makes it possible to form the main climax of the period in the second sentence. A typical location for a climax is towards the end of a period, approximately near the beginning of its last quarter or third (see Ex. 47). The climax in the second sentence contributes to a greater unity of melodic development throughout the period, creating an increase in tension.
There are periods beginning with their main* climax (see example 10). In some periods, the climax is reached at the conclusion; the general poise from this may turn out to be low, which can be used for artistic purposes to develop the form that this period includes (see example 106).

Modulating period

A period that ends in a different key than it started is called a modulating period. In the vast majority of cases, the period begins in the main key and ends in the subordinate. The modulating period, in a certain sense, is more dynamic than a single-tone one, since it is tonally open.
Modulation most often occurs in the second sentence and even towards its end. Therefore, the expositional unity of the main key prevails.
Most characteristic is modulation in the dominant direction (tonality of the V and III steps), so familiar that it does not violate the idea of ​​exposition.
In general, the possibilities in choosing the key for the end of the modulating period are somewhat wider and can be presented in a table (in order of typicality of the final key):

Very rarely, the period ends in a subdominant key (see Beethoven. Scherzo - In tempo d "Allegro - from the sixth symphony; Schubert. Trio scherzo from sonata for piano B-dur).
Most of these possibilities appeared in the 19th century as an innovation based on the major-minor system. There are also other, more distant ratios of tonics (see Schubert. "By the Stream", op. 89 No. 7, 1st e-dis period; Tchaikovsky. Opera "Eugene Onegin", choir "Girls, Beauties", 1st period A-N). But nevertheless, the close relations previously found have remained predominant until now, while the more distant ones are preserved for the continuation of the form following the first period (economy of funds).
Sometimes the simulation starts already in the first sentence and takes up most of the period. Due to this, the harmonic structure can acquire, to one degree or another, a median character. The exposition still makes itself felt, albeit in different ways (the unity of the subject, the structure, the full cadenza at the end, the repetition of the entire period, and, finally, the initial position in the form; see example 17).

Motive. Submotive

The phrase, in turn, can be indivisible or subdivided into one-bar constructions called motives. A motive is a rhythmic group of sounds united by one main accent, which is the smallest semantic unit.
Such a group, despite its brevity, often has a definite character (see examples 46, 70), rhythmic isolation, and therefore, indeed, is a completely meaningful separate particle of the whole. Thanks to this, the motif, repeating and changing, can serve as a thematic grain from which a complete musical theme and even a whole work grows.

Having one main accent, the motive is for the most part approximately equal to one measure, which has the same feature. What was said earlier fully applies to the motive: the beginning and end of the motive very often do not coincide with the bar line (for more details - below), it certainly ends with a chord sound, but not at a delay, a passing sound, etc.
The strong time of the motive (also called "ikt") can be expressed with only one sound. In the diagrams below, it is indicated by a bar and a dash (I -).
Weak beat can be expressed as one or several sounds. Regardless of the number of sounds, the weak beat is marked with a U sign in the diagrams. strong time as a weak ending.
The main types of motive are as follows.
a) amphibrachic motif, the most complete variety; occurs very often:

b) iambic motif; also widely used:

c) choreic motive; somewhat less common:

d) incomplete motive from one strong sound; It rarely has an independent meaning, but more often it serves as the beginning of a phrase or sentence and, in essence, is inseparable from the subsequent movement:

The sound of the melody, which occupies a whole bar, mainly merges with a continuation in a two-bar or four-bar (into an indivisible phrase or sentence):

but, with deliberate emphasis, it can also appear as a separate monosonic motif:

A motif or phrase is sometimes subdivided into smaller melodic-rhythmic groups a part of a bar long, called sub-motifs (see examples 26,33, 47, vol. 3).
On the harmony of the motive, in general terms, we can say the following: from the beat to the strong beat, the harmony mostly changes and sets off their different meanings: the beat, as a swing, preparation for action, and the strong beat, as the action itself. A weak ending is quite common on the continuation of a harmony that entered on a strong beat (a kind of movement by inertia), but it can also be accompanied by a change in harmony. The ending of the motif is possible on any chord with any bass.

Big and difficult periods

In the previous chapter, periods of moderate length (no more than 16 bars), with equal sentences, were considered by eye. Along with them there are periods, also consisting of equal sentences, but of greater length. For example, periods of 32 measures are possible (Chopin. Polonaise As-dur), 40 measures (Schubert. Sonata, op. 53, Scherzo), etc. In short periods, as is known, there is a thematic contrast of elements, but it is relatively rarely very strong. For the formation of long periods, moderate contrast may not be sufficient, and therefore thematic formations are sometimes introduced, which differ significantly from the beginning of sentences (see both examples mentioned above).
In addition, there are such periods, each sentence of which is suitable for existence as an independent period and are therefore called complex. They are usually similar to a simple period by the similarity of the beginnings of both sentences:

As you can see from the example, one of the sentences can end with modulation.
Complex periods also include large periods in which each sentence is divided into thematically similar constructions, due to which four parts are formed in a row, similar in beginning. This is the most typical case:

Addition

An additional construction can be attached to any construction, including a period. Such a construction leading to the same harmony on which the main cadenza ended is called a cadenza complement. Its main meaning is the confirmation of the main cadence. Not being part of the main construction and adjoining it from the outside, the cadence complement forms an external extension:

There can be several cadence additions in a row. In such cases, they are often shortened (crushing):

The addition can be based on the material of the main construction (see example 81), as well as on new material. Sometimes in the supplement there is a brief thematic reprise (see Scriabin. Prelude, op. 11 No. 5).

Reduction

Sometimes the second of two similar constructions, in particular sentences in a period, is shorter than the first. The repeated passage of some material with a decrease in its length will be called a reduction.

Overlay. invading cadence
Sometimes there is a coincidence of the final measure of one construction with the initial measure of the next, which is called an overdub:

The overlay is most often accompanied by a cadenza, which ends in the first measure of the next construction and is therefore called an invading cadenza. On the basis of the imposition, a reduction may occur.

Reprise in a period

A reprise may be formed in an addition. It can also be carried out at the end of the period itself:

which gives the period a peculiar roundness introduced by the reprise in general.

Period - independent form

In the form of a period, the themes of works are very often stated, and, thus, the period is included as a separate part in a larger whole. At the same time, there are numerous short works that represent one period. Thus, the period can be an independent form.
In the field of instrumental music, almost exclusively preludes are composed in the form of one period, that is, small, completely independent pieces in which one mood (one image) develops. This type of prelude was first cultivated by Chopin, before whom preludes were written in other forms (Bach).
An independent instrumental period relatively rarely has a purely periodic structure; this is observed, rather, with the song and dance nature of the theme (Chopin. Prelude A-dur). In general, structural contrasts are more typical. The most common type of period is of two sentences, with an extension in the second of them, which is often associated with a rise to a climax (Chopin. Prelude in C-dur) formed in it. There are periods of three sentences (Chopin. Prelude E-dur) and a complex "period (Chopin. Prelude cis-moll).

In vocal music, the period, as an independent form, is used almost exclusively in a couplet (strophic) song. This is the name of a song in which the music is repeated invariably or slightly varies, and the text is new each time it is repeated. Music, if possible, is given a general character, suitable for all couplets of the text.
In periods, especially short ones, the second sentence is sometimes repeated as if instead of a chorus:

Introduction and coda
In instrumental, and more often in vocal independent periods, there are introductions different types and conclusions, mostly short (see the introduction to Chopin's prelude in b-moll, the conclusion to his own prelude in C-dur, the introduction and conclusion to the romance "Hide me, stormy night" by Dargomyzhsky). Introductions sometimes occur before each sentence of the period (Chopin. Prelude a-moll) The conclusion of the whole work (but not part of it), as you know, is called a coda. In small works, the beginning of the coda is usually not indicated in the musical text and is recognized by the typical signs of the final presentation.
Thematic reprise is possible in the code. Sometimes the coda grows very large (see Tchaikovsky, "Autumn", op. 54 No. 14).

The period of the simplest structure, the constituent parts of the period

A period is a relatively complete thought, completed by a cadenza in the original or another key.
The main large parts of the period, which are most often two, are called sentences.