Russian State University of Oil and Gas

them. I.M. Gubkina

Department of Philosophy

in Philosophy and Methodology of Science

"Knowledge and Technology in Ancient China"

Completed: st-ka. group ATM-13-1

Kokosova Elena A.

Checked by: Assoc. cafe philosophy

Smirnova O.M.

Moscow, 2014

Introduction

Features of the development of scientific knowledge in China

The Influence of Wu Xing (Five Elements) Theory and Yin-Yang Theory on the Development of Science in China

Technological development in China

Conclusion

Used Books

Introduction

Chinese civilization at all times is very mysterious and interesting to study. And this is largely due to the numerous discoveries of the Chinese in science and technology. Undoubtedly, the huge and invaluable contribution of ancient China to the history of the entire world civilization.

“The discoveries of the Chinese were made not in any particular branch of science, such as astronomy, but in many others. Chinese scientific knowledge has reached high altitudes and in mathematics, and physics, and construction, and hydraulic engineering, and medicine. The discovery of the compass, gunpowder, seismograph, mechanical clock and silk weaving technique also belongs to the wise and mysterious Chinese.”

Thus, it is quite logical to talk about the relevance of this work, since modern people admire and use the discoveries of Ancient China to this day.

The object of this work is the history and development of Chinese science. The subject is the knowledge and technology of Ancient China.

The purpose of this work is to explore the knowledge and technology of ancient China. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks in the work:

To identify the features of the development of scientific knowledge in ancient China;

Consider the influence of the theory of Wu-hsing (five elements) and the theory of Yin-Yang on the development of science in China;

To study the development of technology in ancient China.

As for the degree of elaboration of the problem, a significant contribution to the creation of theoretical foundations was made mainly by scientists in cultural studies and history, engaged in the study of Chinese culture and history. In the course of the study, the works of Vasiliev L.S., Kravtsova M.E., Malyavin V.V., Zharne Zh.

Features of the development of scientific knowledge in ancient China

The whole ancient Chinese culture seems to be very unusual and interesting for a European. The Chinese scientific thought, which is developing at a colossal pace, is also of undoubted interest.

If you look at the science of Ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia, then there were also many discoveries and developing scientific knowledge, as in China, but they were not united into a single system, while the science of China can already be considered as a science in the full sense. The knowledge of ancient China is already a clearly structured system of knowledge, subject to a single methodology.

It is interesting to compare the structure of ancient Chinese science with the structure of science in the European Middle Ages. As in ancient times, seven scientific disciplines were distinguished in the Middle Ages, such as: the humanitarian "trivium": grammar, dialectics and rhetoric, as well as the mathematical "quadrivium": geometry, music, astronomy and arithmetic.

Ancient Chinese sciences, in turn, were divided into qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative sciences are medicine, alchemy, astrology, geomancy, showing the relationship between the favorable location of graves and dwellings, taking into account the features of the landscape, as well as physics, similar to ancient natural philosophy and using magical schemes, as well as the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bcorrespondence of micro- and macrocosm for analysis natural phenomena.

And the quantitative sciences included mathematics, which was of an algebraic nature, when, as in antiquity, it was geometric, mathematical harmonics is a science of the Pythagorean type that studies the numerical patterns of constructing musical modes, and mathematical astronomy, which subordinated astronomical phenomena to certain numerical rules. The connecting link that united all these sciences was a very unusual discipline for Chinese culture - numerology, which replaced Aristotelian logic in this sense.

An important feature of ancient Chinese civilization is a kind of cult of education and literacy. That is, smart and talented people were encouraged and highly valued. The authorities strongly supported the development of scientific knowledge. And this undoubtedly contributed to many discoveries and inventions. But it must be said that the applied nature of the science of ancient China determined its development, when, as the science of ancient Greece, it was opposed to technology.

In general, the discoveries, achievements and scientific knowledge of ancient China were far ahead of the scientific knowledge and technology of the West. The key to such success, according to many scientists, was a special view of nature. The scientific thought of the East was looking for a harmonious synthesis of nature and human activity, which was expressed in a highly moral perception of the surrounding world and nature as a whole.

“Cultivation is the main idea of ​​the whole Chinese culture, and therefore the ancient Chinese society attached a special meaning to the cultivation of mind and body. But it should not be overlooked that perfection itself, at the same time, is based on profound scientific principles. This is precisely the main reason why the ancient Chinese civilization was so outstanding.” For those who did not believe in the Gods and did not cultivate, they were not allowed to know the secrets of the universe. In the same way, just as the secrets of the state are inaccessible to ordinary people, so the secrets related to the universe were not revealed. ordinary people. To study the universe, as scientists are required to change their way of thinking.

In addition, scholars of ancient China had to have high xinxing (the nature of the mind and heart) - morality and morality. A high level of xinxing has a positive effect on the ability of scientists to understand the technologies of previous generations, to see changes in substances at different levels.

In other words, the secrets of the universe can only be revealed to those whose soul is noble. If a scholar does not have a high level of xinxing, he will not be able to comprehend the ancestral technology, nor will he be able to preserve and pass it on. This is the reason for the loss of valuable ancient Chinese technologies.

Thus, summarizing the above, it is worth noting that many generations of remarkable scientists with outstanding abilities lived in China. The sciences that scientists studied included systematic theories and practices, but it was forbidden to transfer them to anyone, as certain requirements were imposed on the morality of scientists. They needed to improve their level of ethics and morality.

Influence of the theory of Wu-hsing (five elements), the theory of Yin-Yang on the development of science in China

In our time it is very difficult to realize, from the point of view of modern science, the achievements and heights of ancient Chinese science. Even in the last century there were scientific schools who had different ideas about the basic composition of substances.

Their ideas and theories reflected changes in substances and matter at different levels. It seems incredible to us that without any apparatus or equipment, ancient Chinese scientists discovered the existence of electrons, neutrons and protons in the atom, and that all substances are composed of atoms, regardless of their origin and form. Ancient Chinese thinkers even knew about the existence of substances in various spaces at microscopic levels without the use of a particle accelerator.

"The Theory of the Five Elements (Wu Xing)" dealt with the issue of matter in China. The Chinese discovered that all matter in the universe is made up of five elements: water, metal, wood, fire, and earth. When and how did this concept of matter appear? Most likely, no history book can answer this question, since Wu Xing (Five Elements) Theory has been around since the beginning of Chinese culture. This is something like one of the cornerstones of Chinese culture throughout its history.

The first mention of this theory was found in the book of Shan Shu or also known as Shu Jin (Book of History). This book is a collection of ancient Chinese political literature dating back to the reign of the legendary ancient Chinese ruler Huan Di, which means about 5,000 years ago. In other words, the Chinese developed an understanding of the five elements before the creation of Chinese characters. There are other similar works. They prove that the Theory of Wu Xing (Five Elements) is the basis of all science of ancient China, just as atomic and molecular theories are the basis of the discoveries of modern science of matter and the universe.

Also in China there was a more subtle concept of matter than in the Theory of wu-xing (five elements) - "Theory - Yang". Confucius said: "One Yin and one Yang are called Dao." He also said, "Interactions between hard and soft matter lead to change." Lao Tzu said: “Tao gave birth to One, One gave birth to Two, Two gave birth to Three, Three gave birth to all countless things. All myriad things carry Yin on their backs and hold Yang in their embrace, deriving their vital harmony from the proper blending of the two vital Breaths." He spoke not only about fundamental microscopic particles, but also about the formation various substances. Thus, a huge number of things formed by the five elements have both the properties of Yin-Yang and the five elements. In the “Book of History”, in the chapter “Hun Fan”, various features of matter were described: “Water corresponds to humidity and downward direction. Fire corresponds to flame and upward direction Wood is sinuous or straight in nature. Metal is unstable when interacting with fire. Land is essential for agriculture. The water becomes salty when traveling down. The fire becomes bitter, burning up. Wood can become sour when it changes shape. Metal can become bitter when it becomes unstable. The earth can become sweet when used in agriculture." These five elements limit and promote each other through their natural properties, at the macroscopic level. Element Constraints: Water > Fire > Metal > Wood > Earth > Water. Relationship and promotion of elements: Wood > Fire > Earth > Metal > Water > Wood. All this speaks of the theory of mutual destruction and mutual generation among these five primary elements.

At first glance, there are many non-measurable and abstract elements in these theories, which makes it difficult to accept them as a science, despite reasonable achievements, for example, in medicine. Although if we consider these theories in more detail, we can understand that any substance is formed from many other layers of substances. In other words, all matter is formed from many particles, and this is the same moment, each particle consists of finer matter. Thus, each material substance is formed by a large number of incorporeal substances. That is, the layer of microscopic matter that is above is incorporeal in relation to those that are on the lower layers.

“How can one interpret the theory of Yin-Yang? As Lao Tzu said, that three formed all countless things - this is Yin outside, Yang inside, and harmony between them. This is similar to the theory of the structure of the atom. Each atom consists of neutrons and protons (Yang - positive), electrons (Yin - negative). But how to explain the abstract concept of "Harmony"? This is precisely the fundamental difference between Chinese and modern science. “Harmony” is something not material, and therefore, it is difficult to explain. In other words, the formation of matter, in the process of Yin and Yang interactions, leads to a harmonic energy flow. “Harmony” is a fusion, a union, which means that matter lives in incorporeal energy.”

For example, by examining the human body, modern doctors have learned about the existence of bones, organs, blood vessels, muscle tissue, etc. However, scientists of ancient China considered not only the material component of a person, but also the incorporeal distribution of energy flows. The discovery of such currents led to the knowledge of acupuncture points - channels of energy flow that cannot be seen in our dimension. Based on this, the people of ancient China developed qigong as a way to cure illness. It was believed that consciousness has no effect on the body, but thoughts affect the flow of "Qi" - the energy flow.

As already stated, the understanding of matter in ancient China included both non-material (Qi) and material parts, and also that matter has a living spirit in the Universe. Therefore, scientists of ancient China analyzed and followed the changes of incorporeal and material matters in the Universe, using the theories of Yin-Yang and Wu-hsing.

Summing up the above, it is worth noting that all the scientific knowledge of ancient China was based on the theory of five primary elements that appeared in the Zhou era: metal, wood, earth, fire, water. All these elements (elements) are in continuous mutual transition, movement, forming the diversity of the universe. Many scientific knowledge and discoveries are connected with the theories of scientists of ancient China about matter.

The scientific knowledge of Ancient China from astronomy, geography, pharmaceuticals, physics, chemistry, to medicine is formed by the Yin Theory -Jan; Wu-sin theory (five elements). These theories also influenced the development of architecture, culture and art, and Chinese music.

Development of engineering sciences in China

Technical science in ancient China they reached unprecedented heights, back in the 1st century BC, the Chinese knew how to process iron, had knowledge in the technology of smelting metals and copper, obtained an alloy from bronze, and earlier than other peoples of the world approached the processing and smelting of steel. And from the 4th century BC, they began to make special furnaces for remelting iron ore and received cast iron.

Ancient Chinese bronze cannot be confused with the products of other nations, due to the fact that it was very unusual in its shape, size and patterns. From bronze, the ancient Chinese made massive and heavy vessels, which were intended for sacrifice to the spirits of nature and ancestors. The Chinese skillfully decorated these vessels with geometric ornaments, over which they then applied bas-relief images of a dragon, a ram, a bird, a snake, and a bull. It happened that the vessels themselves took the form of birds and animals protecting people, for example, an owl, a tapir or a tiger. Over time, with the creation of books and the development of writing, the ritual and magical significance of bronze products began to become a thing of the past and then vessels began to be made of clay, and then porcelain was invented.

Masterful skill with bronze, ore, metals and clay contributed to construction and shipbuilding. The Chinese have reached a very high level in shipbuilding, and thus we can safely say that they rightfully own the title of the most developed maritime people of antiquity.

In ancient China, special importance was attached to the construction of an irrigation system. The most outstanding hydraulic structure is the Great Canal of China, which has been under construction for two thousand years and is still in operation, being the most important inland water artery of the People's Republic of China to this day. This canal reaches a length of 32 kilometers and connects the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers. With the help of it, navigation was carried out along the inland waterways of China all year round.

The Chinese reached impressive heights in architecture, which is a consequence of highly developed construction techniques. It certainly refers to the Great Wall of China. Its construction began in the 3rd century BC. during the reign of Emperor Shi Huangdi. It amazes everyone and everyone with its scale and grandeur. knowledge of technology china

The wall was built to protect against the attacks of the Mongols nomads from the north, and also, apparently, as a symbol of the greatness and power of the emperor. Stone slabs were used for its construction. They were laid tightly to each other in layers of compressed earth. Similar stone structures were often erected in the East, where stone was not available, a large mound was erected. Later, parts of the Wall were faced with stone and brick. The wall stretches for 6700 km., 5.5 meters wide, which made it possible to create ranks of five people. There are about a hundred crossings and more than 10,000 military and observation towers along the entire wall.

The whole architecture of China is interesting and unusual. For example, already from the first century BC, the Chinese built two-, three-, and more storey buildings with multi-tiered roofs. Buildings were built on special platforms; they were built from beams and posts; clay walls were erected, and from the 2nd century BC, the walls were built of brick.

Decorative discs with various wishes for wealth and happiness adorned the tiled roofs of Chinese houses. Palace buildings were the highest. They were scattered throughout the city, but were connected by hanging galleries and passages. Palaces were built of red brick, and administrative buildings were already built of yellow brick.

The features of Chinese construction technology include the frame method: columns, or pillars, were erected to create a frame; longitudinal beams were installed on them, and a gable roof was already being built on them.

In the 4th century BC, a bracket was invented, thanks to which roofs began to be made with curved corners. This feature of Chinese construction has found its application in a new type of architectural structure - the pagoda. The roof of the pagoda provided a wonderful drainage of rainwater and created an effective air exchange in the room.

Another technique of ancient China was the use of natural gas and oil. Drilling work was carried out to search for and produce gas using a drill with a cast-iron head. The gas was used to heat houses. Wooden tanks were built to store hydrocarbon raw materials, and bamboo gas pipelines and gas lamps were also created. In addition, already in those days, the Chinese mined coal and built coal mines that reached a depth of fifty meters. Coal was used in workshops and forges.

It is impossible not to mention that the discovery of gunpowder belongs to the ancient Chinese. The discovery of gunpowder is one of the most important achievements of mankind. His discovery is comparable to the creation of such things as ink, compass, paper, silk. His appearance contributed to the development of many areas of human knowledge, despite the problems and troubles that he brought to people. It is used in the military, ballistics, mining, industry, natural sciences, blacksmithing, chemistry, mechanical engineering and rocketry.

The Chinese discovered gunpowder in the 7th century, but began to use it as a remedy. And only then they noticed that this substance burns very well. It began to be used for explosive and incendiary projectiles, which were called "ho pao" (burning ball). It was set on fire and thrown using special throwing machines.

The Chinese invented fireworks. They filled a bamboo tube with gunpowder, lit it - and a fiery arc illuminated the sky. The Chinese were familiar with many of the powder and explosive mixtures they used for fireworks. Pyrotechnics were also used in various rituals, sacrifices, sacred ceremonies, and so on.

Mathematics has been developing in China since ancient times. It is known that in the 2nd century BC a treatise was written called "Mathematics in nine books." This is something like a universal guide for officials, astronomers, land surveyors, and so on. In the book, in addition to pure scientific knowledge, prices for various goods, yield indicators, and so on were written.

By 2000 BC, the mathematicians of ancient China could solve equations, linear equations and systems of equations, as well as equations of the second degree. They knew irrational and negative numbers. There could be no abbreviations in the algebra of ancient China, since in Chinese writing each sign has its own meaning. At the end of the thirteenth century, Chinese mathematicians knew the law of obtaining binomial coefficients, known as "Pascal's triangle." Two hundred and fifty years later, this law was discovered in Europe.

Such a science as astronomy is continuously connected with the development of mathematics. The astronomers of ancient China knew exactly the length of the year - 365 days and created a calendar.

Already from the 12th century BC, the first observatories in China began to be built. Even earlier, Chinese astronomers began to record lunar eclipses, flying comets, which they called "broom stars", as well as new stars and meteor showers.

Another achievement of ancient Chinese astronomy is the correct explanation of the lunar and solar eclipses, the discovery that the motion of the Moon is uneven, the measurement of the sidereal period for Jupiter (twelve years), and from the 3rd century BC - and with good accuracy for all other planets, both synodic and sidereal.

In agriculture and handicrafts, the Chinese improved the plow, created mechanical engines that work using the power of falling water, and a little later they created a water-lifting pump. The Chinese tried fertilizing the soil, and also created special guidelines for land reclamation and irrigation.

One of the peaks of science in ancient China was the breeding of silkworms and the invention of silk manufacturing technology. A little later, later, the Chinese invented paper, which was made from the waste of silk cocoons.

Medicine received the most significant development in ancient China. One of the most important achievements of Chinese doctors was the creation of drugs that were widely used in medicine. The first medical works consist of 35 treatises on various diseases. In the second century, a method for diagnosing diseases by pulse was developed, and the first attempts were made to treat epidemic diseases.

“In the 10th century, the concept of vaccination appeared when doctors began to practice inoculation against smallpox. Chinese monks described a huge number of medicinal plants, in the process of searching for the elixir of "immortality". Doctors of ancient China in the 4th - 3rd centuries BC began to practice the method of cauterization, acupuncture, developed manuals on therapeutic exercises and dietology, a collection of various recommendations, which contained about three hundred prescriptions for the treatment of many diseases. In the 3rd century, the famous Chinese physician Hua Tuo began to use local anesthesia during abdominal operations.

In addition to all of the above, from the technical inventions of ancient China, it is worth noting the magnetic device dating back to the 3rd century BC and which is the forerunner of the modern compass. As well as a seismograph and a water mill, widely used in our time - all this was discovered in ancient times in China.

Few people know that the Chinese are also the first in the discovery of toilet paper, a kite, a bristle toothbrush, a bell, a drum, a gas cylinder and playing cards.

Conclusion

Thus, after analyzing the above material, we can conclude that China's contribution to the history of world discoveries and scientific knowledge is indeed significant and of great interest. But it is impossible to understand this country if you do not study and imbue it with the spirit of the past.

During the period from the dawn of civilization to the 12th century, more inventions were invented in ancient China, more discoveries were made than any other people in the world.

The most important discoveries of ancient China include many inventions, such as the invention of mechanical clocks, gunpowder, compass, seismograph, book printing, and the creation of silk weaving technology.

In addition, already in ancient China, important technical problems related to the use and protection of water resources Thus, hydraulic engineering, astronomy, physics and mathematics reached a high level of development. And the builders of ancient China became famous for their phenomenal structures - the Grand Canal and the Great Wall of China.

The Chinese created unique technologies in the fields of hydraulics, mechanics, mathematics, agriculture, metallurgy, machine design, astronomy, navigation and medicine.

Thus, we can safely say that Chinese culture is truly very diverse and interesting. It differs from our culture, and sometimes it is incomprehensible to us, but this only makes us want to explore and study it more and more.

It is worth noting the main differences between the science of ancient China and the science of our time. Firstly, the requirements for the level of morality and morality of the ancient Chinese were much higher than the requirements for knowledge and intelligence. That is, morality is primary in relation to knowledge. The necessary requirements for xinxing (the nature of the heart and mind; a kind of moral level) for ancient Chinese scholars were very high. Secondly, discoveries and inventions were greatly encouraged by the state and in every possible way contributed to the increased efforts of scientists. Unfortunately, this cannot be said about modern science Today, science increasingly ignores ethics, and states “forget” to encourage scientists.

Used Books

Astronomical observations in China [Electronic resource] // Access address: ://www.asha-piter.ru/06_01_Lab/06_01_Lab_Astronimy_see_history_01.htm

Vasiliev L.S. History of China: Textbook. - M.: Onyx, 2007

Vasiliev L.S. History of the East: In 2 volumes. - M.: graduate School, 1993

Ancient Chinese scientists had knowledge of alchemy [Electronic resource] // Access address: #"justify"> Last release date: 11/11/2013

Jarne J. Ancient China - M .: AST, 2008

Zhan Hu Science in Ancient China [Electronic resource] // Access address: #"justify"> History of the Ancient East. Ed. Kuzishina V. I. - M .: Higher School, 1989

Inventions of Ancient China [Electronic resource] //Access address: #"justify">Last release date: 11/11/2013

Culturology: Textbook for universities / Ed. Markova A.N. - M.: Unity, 2001

Confucius Judgments and conversations - St. Petersburg: Azbuka, 2011

Confucius Lessons of Wisdom - M .: Eksmo, 2008

Kravtsova M. E. History of Chinese culture - St. Petersburg: Lan, 1999

Malyavin V.V. Chinese Civilization - M.: Astrel, 2000

Rozin V.M. Culturology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Infra-M, 1999

The development of science in ancient China // Scientific and information journal Biofile [Electronic resource] // Access address: #"justify"> Shishova NV History and cultural studies. Textbook for university students. - M.: Logos, 2000

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INTRODUCTION

The centuries-old traditions of the great Chinese culture in the turbulent era of the Middle Ages were not only not interrupted, but, on the contrary, were enriched with new content. Buddhism, which came to China from India in the 1st century BC, had a great influence on the whole system of life. AD and acquired here a special national coloring. The era of the Classical Middle Ages was the time of the highest rise of Chinese culture - the "golden age" of literature and painting. During the years of the rule of the Mongol dynasty, when China became part of the vast empire of the conquerors, cultural ties developed especially intensively, and the centuries-old isolation of the Chinese people collapsed. The culture of the Mature Middle Ages came to the limit of the development of its centuries-old traditions, undergoing inevitable transformations and turning its face back, to the origins of folk life, the depths of national consciousness.

1. ERA EARLYMIDDLE AGES

general characteristics period

The era of political fragmentation, which opens the history of Medieval China, did not interrupt the tradition of the country's cultural development. After the Han Empire, swept away by the popular uprising of the "yellow bandages", the three kingdoms(220 - 280): three independent states were formed - Wei, Shu And U. It was a time of wars, epidemics, famine, peasant unrest. The confrontation of the three kingdoms ended with the victory of the successor of Wei - Jin empire(280--316). And although the country was formally united during these years, however, strife and coups continued. The disintegration of the imperial order made China an easy prey for nomadic tribes who poured into the northern and western areas states. Under their pressure, the Chinese fled south, across the Yangtze River. This is how the country was divided into northern and southern parts, which lasted from 316 to 589. and entered into history under the name period of the Northern And Southern dynasties. This division has become one of key points history and culture of China III-VI centuries.

Religion

The political situation affected the spiritual structure of the era and gave rise to such new phenomena as religious Taoism and Chan Buddhism. Taoism was closely associated with mystical sects. The priests who led them, most often from commoners, claimed to possess the revelations sent down to them personally from Heaven. Movement "celestial guides" originated in Northern China, from the 4th century. began to intensively penetrate into the south of the country along with refugees. By the end of the century, folk Taoism had all the hallmarks of an organized religion. Remaining an elitist teaching, at the same time, it provided wide sections of society with access to the most diverse types of shamanic services in everyday life. Popular in this environment were the ideas of the near end of the world.

Date of arrival Buddhism in China is considered 65 AD. e., when the famous monastery of Baimasy (White Horse) was erected near the city of Luoyang. According to legend, it was on a white horse that the first Buddhist writings were delivered to China from India - Sutra(lit. - thread, genre of works, consisting of aphorisms). The fall of the Han Dynasty in 220 weakened the position of that part of the nobility that advocated traditional Confucianism, which favorably affected the spread of Buddhism in China. The ruling dynasties, which often replaced each other, saw Buddhism as their support. So, in only one V century. 17 thousand places of worship were founded. The cities of Luoyang, Chang'an and Nanjing became recognized centers of Buddhism.

Tao, which combines three "Taoist jewels": energy - qi, seed - jini, spirit - shen

Buddhism in China quickly adapted to national traditions. Buddhism was established here first in the form of a teaching Nagarjuna, and then in a mystical variety of teaching Bodhidharma(1st half of the 8th century AD, Ch. Damo).

Over time, Buddhism found some unique relationship with Taoism, and later with Confucianism, which allowed it to organically enter the flesh and blood of Chinese culture.

Thus, initially Buddhism was perceived in China as a form of Taoism. By the VI century. Buddhism became the dominant ideological trend in China and acquired the status state religion. Buddhist monasteries turned into large landowners. In combination with Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism formed a syncretic unity "three religions" in which each teaching, as it were, complemented the other two.

Within a rather short period of time, in the second half of the 6th century, the main schools of Chinese Buddhism proper were formed, which influenced the Buddhist traditions of the whole Far East. Among them, the most widespread chang zong schools, who preached a view of the world as a perfect whole and affirmed the possibility of saving all living beings in this life. To this day, the great influence that took shape at the end of the 6th century. school"Pure Land", promising salvation by faith in the Buddha Amitabha. This doctrine, accessible to the understanding of the broad masses and promising a person a better fate after death, did not require knowledge of the sutras and the performance of complex religious rites, called for “thinking about the Buddha”, argued that only pronouncing the name of Amitabha with faith can give a person rebirth in a blissful kingdom.

In the middle of the VI century. Indian preacher Bodhidharma was founded chan school, What does contemplation mean? It was her adherents who refused to study the sutras and any ritual. Unlike other schools, Chan teachers highly valued physical labor, especially in a team. They also interpreted meditation in a new way - as a spontaneous self-disclosure of the true nature of man in the course of his existence. Being the most sinicized form of Buddhism, the Chan school had a great influence on national art.

Literature

Literature in China has occupied a place of unique significance since ancient times. The literary talent shown at the state examinations gave the student the right to apply for the highest positions in the empire. The leading place in Chinese classical literature was occupied by poetry, its basis was lyric poetry, the essence of which the Chinese saw in the expression of feelings.

Genre of literary poetry III-VI centuries. went through several stages of development. By the end of the II - the first third of the III centuries. refers to the work of poets from the family Dao and the Pleiades "Seven Jiang'an Husbands". About 300 poems by poets of that time have survived to this day. Their work was characterized by the imitation of a folk song, the strengthening of elements of realism and personal beginning, the pathos of unifying ideas, sympathy for the troubles of the people.

An event in the history of Chinese poetry was the birth of a five-word verse -- ugh, which replaced the four-word one that dominated earlier. The fifth hieroglyph brought the poetic language closer to colloquial speech, the folk song from which it developed. The "golden age" of fu began with Kong Rong(153--208) and Cao Zhi(192--232). The best poems of the most daring of poets, Kong Rong, were written in prison, where he was imprisoned for criticizing the founder of the Wei Dynasty. Through all the work of Cao Zhi, the image of a wandering warrior dreaming of heroic deeds passed.

The next step in the development of five-word poems was made by seven friends of writers - "The Seven Wise Ones from the Bamboo Grove". They marked the beginning of poetic professionalism in China. Poems of two representatives of this poetic community have survived to this day - Ruan Ji(210--263) and Ji Kang(223--262). The work of Ruan Ji was distinguished by deep lyricism and tragedy of attitude. His spirit of resistance was expressed in the experience of the impermanence of everything that exists, the variability of everything, even "the sun and moon appear and disappear." Exposing the greed of those in power in Ji Kang's Poems of Hidden Indignation, which he wrote in prison, cost the poet his life. A petition expressing sympathy for the executed was signed by 3,000 people, which was an unprecedented precedent.

IV century passes under the sign of domination "Poetry of mysterious sayings" -- fashionable among aristocrats of poems on the topics of Taoist philosophy. The contrast was the work of the great national poet of China TooYuan-ming(365--427), who lived in the south of the country, the author of 160 poems that have come down to us. His poems affirm the ideal of simplicity and spiritual freedom:

I call my wife, we take the children with us,

And on a good day for us, we go far for a walk.

The poet himself accomplished the feat of breaking away from the prosperous life destined for him by birthright. public service he started at the age of 29, and at the age of 41 he left it, resigning from the post of head of a small county. Having chosen the truth of simple existence, along with it, he received poverty in addition. One of the best in Chinese poetry is his poem from the cycle "For wine":

mountain skyline

so beautiful at sunset

When the birds are above her

flying home!

This is everything for me

the real meaning

I want to tell,

and I already forgot the words.

On the 5th century account for the flourishing of landscape lyrics ("Poems about mountains and waters"). Its discoverers are poets of the south from the Se family - Xie Lingyun(385 --433) and Xie Tiao(464--499). Xie Lingyun peers and listens into nature, being in constant anticipation of the moment when the outlines of the mountains will reveal to him the meaning of the universe. Xie Tiao's poetry already in many ways anticipates the "golden age" of Tang poetry. It became more and more objective and clear, although it still retained a touch of refinement, due to the tastes of the environment and time. From the end of the 5th century the formation of the court style began, which dominated Chinese poetry for the next two centuries. He was characterized by concern for the euphony of the verse, a narrow set of given topics, and verbal etiquette.

Along with literary poetry in the III-VI centuries. the genre of folk song developed. The works have come down to us thanks to the work of a special public institution -- music chamber, who was in charge of collecting song texts and melodies among the people. Most of the songs belong to the genre love lyrics that arose among the citizens. Northern poetry, unlike southern poetry, is more diverse in content. There are many military songs in it, in style it is more rough and direct.

Chinese prose III-VI centuries. continued to be multi-genre. Historical and geographical writings became more and more scientific. Among them were the works Chen Show (233--297) History of the Three Kingdoms by Fan Ye (398--445) History of the Later Han by Li Tao-yuan(?-- 527) "Comment to Book of Waters" And To Pu (276 -- 324) "Commentaries on the Book of Mountains and Seas".

The leading prose genre of the era was rhythmic philosophical prose close to poetry, born around conversations and disputes on religious topics: "Breakup Letters" treatises "On longevity", "Refutation of the theory of natural love of learning."

The period of troubled times is marked by the birth in China of "stories of the amazing" artistic narrative prose. Such writings were instructive in nature, asserting, with the help of collected examples, belief in evil spirits, Taoist immortals, and the power of the Buddha's teachings. Interest in such stories in society was huge, they were collected and distributed in the form of collections, such as Spirit Records by Tan Bao(III-IV centuries), "Lives of Saints and Immortals" by Ge Hong(III-IV centuries).

Stories about worldly events and people, including historical anecdotes, as a special genre of prose literature also appeared in the 4th-6th centuries. Such narratives were always laconic and contained a record of only one event. The most popular became "Tales of World Events" by Liu Yi-ching(403--444), divided into headings: deeds, language, government, deeds. The division was not random. The author created, as it were, an artistic illustration for a treatise of the 3rd century BC. Liu Shao " Description of people», giving assessments of human character traits.

Art

Despite the obvious literary centrism of the cultural development of the Early Middle Ages, the centuries-old traditions of art not only were not interrupted, but, on the contrary, were enriched with new content. At the junction of trade routes, the rapid construction of grandiose rock Buddhist monasteries with numerous caves decorated with statues, reliefs, frescoes. Among others, monasteries stand out near Dunhuang -- Yungang, Longmen And Qianfodong. It is customary to build in holy places pagodas(Chinese bao-ta - treasure tower) - multi-tiered memorial reliquary towers.

In the visual arts, images of celestials and young intercessors for humanity, marked by elongated proportions and graceful execution, occupied a central place. The sculpture of cave monasteries was dominated by heavy and static, colossal statues of Buddha, fused with the mass of rock, sitting in a strictly frontal pose with a hand raised in a gesture of teaching.

In the south of the country, where ancient traditions were not interrupted by a foreign invasion, a type not related to Buddhist themes was developed. illustrated story on horizontal scrolls. They were made with ink and mineral paints, but by means of expressiveness, a variety of linear strokes, they were clearly close to art. calligraphy. From the 5th century the oldest surviving treatise on painting, the spiritual purpose of art and aesthetic norms has come down to us "The Six Rules of Painting". Its author Xie He(c. 500) had a fundamental influence on the theory of fine arts in China. The first two laws of Xie He contained the philosophical principles of painting - the postulate of spiritualized rhythm and plastic dynamics, the remaining four outlined particular aspects of technology - similarity, color, composition, copying.

Science and technology

The period of political fragmentation did not stop the development of science and technology in China. The great achievement of Chinese mathematics was the results of calculations made in the 5th century BC. father and son Zu Chongzhi And Zu Genzhi. Using methods unknown to us, they got the exact number up to the tenth decimal place. This achievement was recorded in the annals, while the works themselves disappeared without a trace.

The Chinese discovered a way to measure physical bodies at a distance, they came to the conclusion that "the earth has a shape, and the sky is devoid of a body." For the first time in the history of the calendar in China, the precession 11 From Late Lat was used. praecessio - moving forward. , knew about one and a half thousand stars. They developed diagnostics of diseases: based on the doctrine of the dark and light principles, they explained the relationship between physiology, pathology and disease, and discovered methods of biological control of plants.

In the 5th century a process was developed for alloying metals, in which cast iron and malleable steel were melted to obtain new steel. 11 In Europe, this process was discovered in 1863 by Marten and Siemens. .

In the III century. for the first time in world practice, the Chinese learned how to cast metal stirrups of perfect shape. They were brought to the west by the warriors of the Zhuan-Zhuan tribe, which became known as the Avars. A navigational “cybernetic device” appeared, operating on the principle of feedback. It was called the "south-pointing wagon". This device had nothing to do with magnetic compass and was just a wagon crowned with a jade figurine of a sage. Wherever the wagon turned, even if it went in circles, the outstretched hand of the sage always pointed south.

One of the most amazing items created by Chinese craftsmen were "magic mirrors". They already existed in the 5th century. The convex reflecting side of the mirror was cast from light bronze and polished to a shine. Back side covered with cast bronze drawings and hieroglyphs. Under the bright rays of the sun, through the reflective surface, one could look through and see the patterns of the reverse side, as if the bronze became transparent. The mystery was unraveled only in the 20th century, when the microstructure of metal surfaces became available for study.

In the VI century. The first matches appeared in China. It is believed that they owe their appearance to the siege of the imperial palace in 577 in the northern kingdom of Qi. When all the tinder came out of the besieged, someone came up with the idea of ​​dipping small pine sticks in sulfur and, after drying, keep them ready. At first, this wonderful invention was called “a slave that brings fire”, and later, when matches began to be sold, a new name appeared - “lighting sticks”.

2. THE AGE OF THE CLASSICALMIDDLE AGES

General characteristics of the era

The era of the Classical Middle Ages (VII-XIII centuries) begins with the reign of the dynasty Tan, lasting almost 300 years (618-907). As a result of the unification of the principalities that were at war with each other, a powerful state was created with its capital in Changwan, a city with a million inhabitants. After the fall of the Tang dynasty and several decades of interregnum (907-960), the dynasty came to power soong(960--1275). Sung China with its capital Kaifeng, weakened by recent civil strife, was forced to continuously fight off the nomads who were pressing on it. In 1126, the nomads inflicted a crushing defeat on the Sung troops, capturing the emperor, and with him the whole of Northern China. The Suns still managed to hold out for a century and a half (1127-1279) in the south of the country (the capital of Hangzhou), until all of China became the prey of new conquerors - the Mongols.

Religious-philosophical tradition

New History Page Chan Buddhism in China begins with the activities of the sixth patriarch Huineng(638--713). He is considered the founder of the southern Chan school, which adhered to the principle of "sudden enlightenment", based on the fact that gradual approach to it is impossible. Huineng is credited with the authorship of the famous "The Altar Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch", which is the key among the sacred texts of Ch'an Buddhism.

Huineng taught that instead of trying to purify the mind, one should only give it freedom, for the mind is not something that can be mastered. To free consciousness means to let go of the flow of thoughts and impressions, to give them the opportunity to come and go, not to interfere in their course, not to suppress them and not to hold back. After the death of Huineng, the school split into two directions - North and South. The latter managed to consolidate around Huineng's teachings and became the leading one in the Ch'an tradition. From the middle of the 8th century in the monasteries of this school, the practice of Q&A(wenda, Japanese. mondo). As a rule, the teacher gave an unexpected, most often illogical answer to the student's question. The answer could be expressed both by a gesture (a blow, a raised finger) and a cry. Questions and answers were the main material for stories from the life of the Ch'an patriarchs. Many of these collections have been passed down from generation to generation. The two most famous collections were compiled in the 11th-13th centuries: "Outpost without a gate" And "Notes at the Turquoise Rock".

Until the middle of the IX century. Buddhism enjoyed the patronage of the imperial court. In 845 the emperor Wu Zong with In order to undermine the economic power and independence of Buddhist monasteries and reduce their numbers, he initiated severe persecution of Buddhism. Soon begins the slow but steady decline of Buddhism in China, it merges with folk religion.

folk religion born in the 11th century. from an alloy of the cult of ancestors, sacrifice to spirits, belief in ghosts and demons, divination, mediumship, supplemented by the Buddhist concepts of karma and reincarnation, as well as the Taoist doctrine of the hierarchy of the gods. This religion initially and to this day does not have professional clergymen. The costs of maintaining the temples were borne by local residents. Almost all gods are deified spirits of dead people. At the head of the hierarchy of gods - Jade Sovereign (Yu Di). In opposition to the gods are demons, the restless souls of people who died a violent death. Their expulsion constitutes the main ritual of the religion. On behalf of some powerful deity, the medium makes an inscription on the talisman, which is an order to the evil forces to immediately leave the body. After reading aloud, it is burned. It is believed that the smoke conveys a message to the sky.

Concerned about the growing popularity of Buddhism, some officials and thinkers began to create new Confucian philosophy. They borrowed ideas from Taoism and Buddhism, combining them into a new system with a predominance of Confucian values. The most famous Neo-Confucian was Zhu Xi(ISO--1200). He argued that the duty of every person is to fill life with meaning and order, strengthen them and contribute to the ordering of the family, society and the state. This combination of personal self-improvement with social responsibility pleased the government with neo-Confucianism. The stability of society was directly dependent on the fidelity of each person to his social role. Later, already in the 14th century, the government ordered that Zhu Xi's interpretations of the Confucian classics be the basis of the state examination program. Since then, every educated person should have studied them.

Literature

The Tang era is considered the "golden age" of Chinese poetry. This time was the heyday of five-word and seven-word poems with a two-line rhyme. Prominent poets were Wang Wei, Li Po, Du Fu and Bo Juyi. The flowering of poetry was facilitated by the appearance in the 7th century. first large dictionary literary language, which included 12158 hieroglyphs.

The first in a series of great classics of the Tang era Wang Wei(699--759) - not only a wonderful poet, but also a talented painter. He managed to make his poems voluminous, bringing them closer to the picture, and the pictures to the verse. Nature occupies a large place in his work. Li Bo(701--762) belonged to those few geniuses whose work expressed the innermost spirit of the Chinese people. More than 900 of his poems have survived. The life of the poet did not fit into the framework of the standards of his position. He left home, wandered, developing the ideal of freedom. However, there was not a hint of arrogance in Li Bo's greatness.

With poetry Doo Fu(712--770) the theme of compassion for a person, denunciation of injustice, shame of the prosperous in front of the afflicted, the motive of self-sacrifice are connected. In one of their poems recent years Du Fu dreams of a huge house in which all the poor of the Celestial Empire would find salvation from bad weather.

In the second half of the VIII century. the talent of the last of the great Tang poets is revealed Bo Ju-yi(772--846). If his famous predecessors determined their discord with society by their very lives, then Bo Ju-yi embarked on the path of a state career and risked it with every independent word. Among the accusatory verses of the poet, the central place is occupied by "New Folk Songs" And "Qin tunes".

In the Tang era, a new prose genre appears - short stories -- chuan qi(lit. convey the amazing). 79 stories were recognized as Tang stories. They are small in size, entertaining in plot, instructive in character and dynamic in action. A characteristic feature is the attraction to the "historical accuracy" of the narrative, which is provided by frequent references to the personal acquaintance of the authors with the friends of the characters. The theme of love makes up more than a third of the short stories that have come down to us, because, according to the ideas of the storytellers, love reigns supreme in the world and finds its victims everywhere. A large group consists of stories about dreams. It is curious that in the short stories not a single bright villain. The conquest of the genre was the dialogue, which brought the short story closer to the drama.

The Sung epoch in the history of Chinese literature (X-XIII centuries) was the last to adequately complete the period of its heyday. Enrichment means of expression poetry was associated with the development of a new poetic genre - romance -- tsy. Born in close connection with music, this genre has acquired independence. It was distinguished by its diversity associated with the multiplicity of melodic samples. Another feature of the romance was the use of lines of different lengths in the poem. On the whole, romance was a freer poetic form than previous genres of poetry. However, at first it was distinguished by the narrowness of the subject - mainly love content.

The renewal of the literature of the Song period was one of the facets of the struggle for reform. It was headed by an outstanding Chinese reformer, scientist, writer and poet (craftsmen) Wang Anshi(1021--1086). The creativity of the lyricist is connected with public searches. Liu Yuna(987--1052), who created a new, larger form of romance. Another poet Su Dongpo(1037--1101) contributed to the separation of romance from music and the transformation of tsy into an independent genre. The greatest master of qi was a poetess Li Tssh-zhao (1084--1151).

Since the conquest of the Song Empire by the Jurchens in 1127 and up to the Mongol invasion in the second half of the 13th century. Chinese poetry was devoted to the theme of the motherland and the struggle for its liberation. The ideal of an active creative person with a heightened sense of dignity and love of freedom was formed.

The conquest of the Classical Middle Ages was "prose of the ancient style", reached its peak in the Song Dynasty. She was distinguished by a free manner of presentation, an increase in her personal beginning, a combination of lyricism with topicality. The initiator of the renewal of prose was a representative of the political elite Ouyang Xiu(1007--1072), author « new history Tan" And "History of the Five Dynasties". No one before in Chinese historiography has been able to write the history of an entire era from their own personal point of view. Ouyang Xu was the first to undertake a revision of the interpretation of the Confucian canon. An outstanding contemporary of Ouyang Xiu was Sima Guang(1019--1086), author "Mirrors of the universal, helping in management." It was a chronicle of the history of China from ancient times to the tenth century. - the first example of a large form of historical prose of connected narrative.

In the Sung time, a new genre is born - folk story, which replaced the Tang novel. This genre was formed in the process of collective creativity of storytellers who spoke on the streets of cities. Unlike the short story, the story was created on the basis of spoken language and was more democratic. The main characters were previously despised estates - farmers and merchants. At that time, wealth and rank remained decisive in assessing a person, but the personal qualities of the hero are already becoming important. The language of the story was also new, which became the basis of the language of modern Chinese fiction and retained folklore elements, reproducing the features of lively colloquial speech. Conditional literary language interspersed only in the speeches of officials and in documents. Thus, the folk tale of the Sung time made a decisive turn towards the mass reader and listener.

Music

The Tang and Song eras were marked by an extraordinary rise in all kinds of arts, which were under the auspices of ruling dynasties. In the 8th century five special educational institutions, including the Court School and the Pear Orchard Conservatory. Special offices were in charge of music and orchestras. Since the X century. in Nanjing, the imperial Academy of Painting. In the XII century. At the Kai-Feng court, a museum-repository of more than 6,000 works of painting and calligraphy was organized.

Since ancient times, music has occupied one of the most honorable places in Chinese traditional culture. It was included in the six Confucian examinations. Due to its ambiguity, sound, especially valued by the Chinese, acquired the ability to subjugate all other art forms. Such a figurative-emotional structure of Chinese spirituality is largely determined by the nature of the national language, in which the word pronounced with different intonations, can have different values.

There was a popular saying "Words can deceive, people can pretend, only music cannot lie." Music brought the Chinese not only aesthetic pleasure, but also awe. Since ancient times, it has been revered as one of the most powerful varieties of magic. art painting sculpture china

In the Tang era, court music was represented by two genres:

outdoor music and indoor music. In the homes of educated people, the tradition of chamber music playing on strings began to spread. (harp, kunhou, qin) and brass (flute di) tools. The verses set to music were performed by the singers to the accompaniment lutes. In the IX-X centuries. in the cities, song tales and recitations to the music of excerpts from Buddhist canonical books became widespread.

In the Song era, the performing arts became popular: song tales played out in booths with instrumental accompaniment, multi-part dramas, and southern musical dramas.

Architecture

Pantheistic 11 Pantheism (from pan... and Greek theos - god) is a religious and philosophical doctrine that identifies God and the whole world. the worldview of the Chinese in architecture manifested itself as an ancient practice Feng Shui("wind-water"), which was a system of orientation and platform

nirovki cities, parks, buildings in accordance with the favorable location of the luminaries, rivers, mountains, the direction of air currents. According to these rules, the main facade of the building was a longitudinal wall oriented to the south. Thai architecture was characterized by the spirit of monumental grandeur and festivity. The cities were powerful fortresses rectangular in plan, surrounded by walls and ditches, with straight streets and quarters divided into sections for protection from fires and raids. The size of each city building was strictly regulated. The solemn appearance of the city was given by almost devoid of decorations brick and stone pagodas, triumphal gates made of stone or wood, the spans of which were formed by carved pillars and covered with curved roofs. They were erected at the entrance to a temple, a funeral ensemble, a park, or in honor of rulers and heroes. The most common type of palace and temple construction in medieval China was the post-and-beam system. dian. A one-storey, single-room, quadrangular pavilion under a wide, one- or two-tiered roof curved upwards, was erected on a high stone platform, divided by columns into three naves parallel to the facade, and surrounded from the outside by a bypass gallery formed by a row of lacquered columns. The most important decorative element of the facade of the buildings was a system of painted and lacquered multi-colored wooden brackets that supported the ceiling.

In the Sung period, multi-story buildings with bypass galleries on each floor became widespread in palace and temple architecture. The pagodas were more elongated and had lighter forms. At a time when the power of the state was undermined, architecture acquired a more intimate and refined character, began to be perceived as part of nature. There was a principle landscape compositions. In the southern cities, small backyard gardens began to be created, reproducing in miniature all the diversity surrounding nature. An indispensable attribute of landscape architecture was a wooden walk-through gallery on a low stone plinth. It was crowned with a roof laid out with glazed tiles, supported by lacquered pillars. Garden arbors were built on the same principle.

Sculpture

With the advent of Buddhism in China, sculpture develops. It was made of wood, stone, loess clay, cast iron, bronze. Chinese craftsmen were distinguished by high casting technique. They succeeded in fine modeling of the face and clothes. Images of Buddha and other deities were popular. The earliest Buddhist sculpture is represented by reliefs and sculptures from cave monasteries. The most famous is carved in the 7th century. in the rocks of Longmen 17-meter statue Buddha Vairochana(lords of the cosmos). sculptural composition "Bodhisattva and Ananda" cave Buddhist temple Qianfodong near Dunhuang (VIII century) is made of loess clay and painted.

Tang and Sung masters achieved great success in funeral plastic. Small colorful statuettes made of glazed ceramics were placed in the burials of noble people: war horses in the heat of battle, a bent slave, a scientist immersed in thought, or a graceful dancer. With the extinction of Buddhist monasteries, sculpture more and more gave way to painting, which flourished in the Sung period.

Painting. Calligraphy

Chinese painting, like music, is unusually attractive, but for the European consciousness it is difficult. The main thing for a Chinese artist is not what is drawn, but what is hidden behind the visible. They do not look at the Chinese picture, but peer, each time discovering and comprehending new meanings. Therefore, it is not customary to hang them out, hence the shape of the picture - horizontal or vertical. scroll. The works of Chinese traditional painting were based on a combination of pictorial and graphic techniques, with the inclusion of a calligraphic poetic inscription in the composition of the painting. With the help of a brush, paintings were created on silk or special paper with ink or water-based paints. At the same time, a strictly limited set and combination of colors were used. By the dominant tone of the picture, one can determine not only the historical era, but also the nature of the event being described. Line, spot and background are the main means of expression, each of which, thanks to an individual manner, makes the picture unique and needs to be declassified. Thus, amazing ambiguity was achieved with a minimum of funds. 11 Modern Chinese painting with water colors on silk and paper scrolls is called guohua(Chinese - national painting). .

In alliance with painting, as well as as an independent art form, calligraphy -- shufa. In the Middle Ages, four main styles of shouf stood out: a business letter with jagged wavy lines; statutory letter with the balance of all elements of the hieroglyph; style, transitional from statutory to cursive; cursive with a rapid movement of lines, gravitating towards continuity.

In the Tang era, a turning point occurred in the aesthetic theories of painting. The spiritual concept of painting was affirmed, theoretical treatises on painting appeared. One of the most significant artists and theorists of painting in the first half of the 10th century. was Zing Hao. He lived alone in a mountain hut and painted for his own enjoyment. In the short treatise he left, representing a conversation between a mysterious old man and a young artist, the goal of painting is not beauty, but truth, the true meaning of which lies in how it captures the essence of things, and not their external forms.

In the second half of the XI century. (1074) appeared the most important work Go Ruo-hsuya on the history of art of the Song era - “Notes on painting: what I saw and heard. He was the author of the aristocratic concept of painting. Painting was considered by him not as a craft, but as the highest manifestation of a person's inner impulse. The value of a work, therefore, was a direct consequence of the culture and spiritual height of its creator.

In the VII-VIII centuries. The main subjects of painting were images of Buddhist paradise, the images of which covered the walls of cave monasteries. Court secular painting paid special attention to the scenes of feasts, games, walks of noble beauties, and poetry meetings. Became popular among the people splint -- christmas pictures, depicting characters of folk and Taoist mythology.

Iconography of the supreme deity of folk religion -- Jade Emperor developed around the 10th century. In folk prints, he was depicted on a throne in a royal headdress and a robe embroidered with dragons, with a jade tablet in his hands, a symbol of law and a fair trial.

In the IX-X centuries, when the predominant development was monochrome Painting, three leading genres took shape: painting people, landscape painting and flowers-birds. Genre evolution painting people marked by a transition from legendary historical plots to real scenes of palace life. From the 12th century motifs of children's games, landscape and architectural backgrounds are introduced into painting.

An outstanding achievement of Chinese culture during the Tang and Song era was landscape Painting, who took everything best achievements fine arts of previous eras.

The landscape, depicting mountains and rivers as the most revered sacred elements of nature, was compositionally built in accordance with the dark and light forces opposing in the Universe. Washes of black ink created the impression of the unity of all nature. Air breaks, a strip of fog or a water surface between landscape plans located one above the other and a point of view unifying the composition from above gave the illusion of grandiose distances. The abundance of free space caused an association with the infinity of the universe. The famous master of the landscape in a sketchy manner was the great poet Wang Way.

Along with the landscape genre, the leading genre was the genre - bird flowers. Free compositions of flowers, birds, plants, fruits, insects placed on a clean background, accompanied by calligraphic inscriptions, reflected the Taoist-Buddhist ideas about the duality of the forces of the Universe. Benevolent compositions were widely used, in which human qualities were compared with the features of the depicted objects. A special place was occupied by the image of the so-called "four noble" plants: orchids, wild plum meihua, bamboo and chrysanthemum. So, meihua symbolized nobility, purity and steadfastness. In one of their treatises on painting, it is said about her like this:

Small flowers, and there is no abundance of them - this is grace. A thin barrel, not a thick one - that's finesse. At an age not particularly young - that's elegance. The flowers are half open, not in full bloom - that's sophistication.

Arts and Crafts

Among the areas of decorative and applied arts, such as embroideries, fabrics, varnishes, enamel, inlaid furniture, porcelain and ceramics took the leading place. The secret of making porcelain was discovered in China in the first centuries of our era, much earlier than in other countries, since the Chinese master managed to find suitable clay and get a high (1280 °) temperature for sintering it. The components of porcelain, along with plastic clay, are kaolin, feldspar and quartz. The secrets of porcelain production in China were strictly guarded. The famous center of porcelain production, where the imperial workshops were located and products from snow-white porcelain were created, was Xingzhou. In the Tang period, tricolor green-yellow-brown rounded vessels were famous. In the Sung era, bluish-green vases and bowls, nicknamed in Europe, became widespread. celadon. Their decor was often complemented by light cracks in the glaze, called crackle. White vessels, as a rule, were decorated with delicate floral patterns in relief, yellowish vases were decorated with black calligraphic ornaments. Subsequently, porcelain was painted with cobalt and covered with transparent glaze on top. Five-color painting with enamel paints over glaze also appeared. The drawing gradually became more complicated, but always emphasized the shape of the product.

Along with porcelain in Medieval China, as well as beyond its borders, multicolored fabric paintings, performed according to the drawings of famous painters, - cases. They were created on small hand looms from raw silk (warp threads) and silk (weft threads). It took several months of hard work to make one such painting. In the technique of kesa, fabrics for the clothes of the courtiers were also woven.

A well-known type of applied art was silk embroidery, -- "painting with a needle". She decorated panels, screens, clothes.

Science and technology

The great discoveries of medieval China were unthinkable without the development of scientific knowledge. Through the efforts of mathematicians, the foundations of Chinese algebra were created by the inventions of a Buddhist monk And the Son(683--727) it became possible to measure the speed of movement celestial bodies. The development of medicine was facilitated by the creation in the Tang era medical management, with the help of which the teaching of various specialties of medical practice was initiated. The flourishing of geography is associated with the appearance of records about the mountain and river systems of China and the Western Territory. Was created "Map of the Chinese and Barbarians Residing Within the Four Seas".

Outstanding discoveries were typography, gunpowder and the compass. In the ninth century the first book was printed from carved boards. In the middle of the XI century. mobile clay appeared typesetting hieroglyphic font, and around the 12th century. -- And multicolor printing. These achievements led to the creation of the first major libraries and newspapers. The experiments of Chinese alchemists ended in the tenth century. invention gunpowder. In the XII century. Chinese navigators were the first in the world to use compass.

The invention was also of general cultural importance. paper money -- banknotes. They appeared in the country at the end of the 8th century. and were then called "flying money", as the wind easily carried them out of their hands.

In the tenth century concept vaccination, when smallpox vaccination began to be practiced.

China also took the lead in inventing mechanical watches. They were made by Yi Xing, and improved in 976 by Zhang Xixun. Their inventions became steps towards the creation "Space Machine" -- the greatest Chinese clock of the Middle Ages, built Su Sunom in 1092. They were an astronomical clock tower 10 meters high. The principle of Su Song's clock formed the basis of the first mechanical clock in Europe.

The miracle of engineering technology of its time was the first arch bridge 37.5 m long, called by the Chinese to this day the Great Stone Bridge. It was built in 610. Lee Chun across the Jiao River in the foothills of Shanxi on the outskirts of the Great Plain of China. China's most famous medieval gently sloping arch bridge is named after Marco Polo because he was described in detail during a trip around the country and called "the most wonderful in the world." This bridge was built across the Yongding River in 1189 to the west of Beijing. It is still in operation and consists of 11 arches, each with a span of 19 m and a total length of 213 m.

Another Chinese marvel of foundry and engineering is the octagonal column, the so-called "Axis of Heaven". In 695, 1325 tons of cast iron were used for its construction. The column (32 m in height and 3.6 m in diameter) rested on a foundation with a circumference of 51 m and a height of 6 m. At its top was a "cloud vault" with four bronze dragons (each 3.6 m high) supporting a gilded pearl.

The largest solid cast iron structure has survived to this day. This is a six meter statue "The Great Lion of Zangzhou". The achievement of Chinese metallurgy was the 13-meter cast-iron pagoda yuquan in Danian. In the 70s of the XIII century. a 13-meter stone tower was built, which Chinese astronomers considered the center of the world. It was intended to measure the shadow during the winter and summer solstices.

3. MONGOLIAN ERACONQUESTS OF CHINA

General characteristics of the era

China was conquered by the Mongols in the 13th century. step by step. In 1234, the independence of North China fell. In 1280, all of China was conquered. The period of domination of the Mongols throughout the country covers about 70 years. In the 50s of the XIV century. the central and southern regions actually separated from the ruling Mongolian Yuan dynasty, the final overthrow of which took place in 1368. In the Yuan era, the Mongolian city was an equal capital Karakoram, Beijing And Kaiping. The transfer of the official residence of the Mongol conquerors from Karakoram to Beijing in 1264 became the date of birth of a new dynasty of Chinese emperors -- Yuan.

The devastating war and foreign oppression seriously deformed the traditions of Chinese culture. However, there were also positive moments. In the vast Mongol empire, cultural ties began to actively develop, crafts and trade flourished, and cities grew.

Religion

The religious tolerance of the Mongol court, as well as the loss of the status of the dominant ideology by Confucianism, contributed to the democratization of life. From the middle of the XIII century. becomes the official religion of the Mongolian court lamaism -- Tibetan variety of Buddhism. The administration of Tibetan affairs and the lamaist church was created at the emperor's headquarters. Khan Khubilai's acceptance of the imperial form of governing China inevitably led to an appeal to Confucian teaching, which was closely merged with the state. And although the leading position of Confucianism was not restored under Yuan, however, in 1315 an examination system was introduced for selection, officials, Academy of the sons of the fatherland -- forge of the highest Confucian cadres of the country.

More and more penetrating into the country is Islam, which enjoyed the patronage of the Mongols. The first Muslim communities then appeared on the Central Plain and in Yunnan. A good reception was also met by the first Christians, mostly Nestorians. and asserting that Christ, born of man, only later became the son of God (the messiah). Condemned as heresy at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Influenced until the 11th century. in Iran and from Central Asia to China. , immigrants from Syria. They had adherents mainly among the non-Chinese population from among the foreigners admitted into the country to assist in trade and administration.

Under the Mongols, several Italian Catholic missionaries lived in China and built temples. With the expulsion of the Mongols, Christians also disappeared from the country.

A characteristic feature of religious life was the emergence of numerous sects that were born on the basis of Buddhist and Taoist creeds. Some of them were recognized by the authorities, others were persecuted. They were created, as a rule, by monks-preachers. Buddha of the coming world order gained particular popularity Maitreya(Chinese Milefo, literally - bound by friendship), whose imminent coming was to transform the world and make people's lives happy.

Among the sects that awaited the coming of the new Buddha and preached "monasticism in the world", the most famous was the White Lotus sect, which predicted an imminent world catastrophe and the advent of the era of the White Sun.

Literature. Art

An attempt by the Mongolian court to introduce an official alphabetic letter (the so-called square letter) failed. The development of Chinese literature of the Yuan era was facilitated by the improvement of the national hieroglyphic tradition, which was enriched in the 20-50s of the XIV century. a number of new phonetic dictionaries.

Poetic lyric poetry, which for almost a millennium was the leading genre of Chinese literature, from the 13th century. inferior to the primacy of dramaturgy and prose.

The brightest page in the literary life of Yuan China was dramaturgy. In total, about 600 plays were written during this era (170 have come down to us).

The North Chinese drama was characterized by a clear division into four acts, each of which corresponded to a cycle of arias of the same key and rhyme. The arias were sung by only one character, while others conducted a prose dialogue in a language close to colloquial speech, or recited poetry. Interludes were inserted at the beginning of the play and between acts. This form was designed for the perception of the broad masses of the urban population.

The harsh laws of the Mongols did not allow the truth to be told directly about the disasters of the Chinese in the era of foreign yoke. Therefore, the tradition of transferring modern events into the past, turning to historical and fantastic plots, is gaining popularity, which, however, did not deprive the plays of topicality.

In the history of drama, it is customary to distinguish two main periods: early and late, the boundary of which is the beginning of the 14th century. The early period is marked by the work of the most famous playwrights - Guan Hanqing, Wang Shifu, Ma Zhiyuan And Bo Pu.

If in the Tang era the prose genre of the short story was born, in the Song era - the urban story, then in the Yuan years, folk books, based on oral history. They were often illustrated with engravings that occupied the top third of each page. This ratio of text and image is believed to go back to Buddhist tales, which were often based on pictures painted on the walls of cave temples. In 1320, in a language close to the common people, five folk books were published at once in one series. They were united according to the principle of construction and imitated the famous chronicle of Sima Guan "Mirror universal, helping in management" of the 11th century. Brighter than others in folk books reflected the Buddhist doctrine.

The visual arts of the Yuan era did not differ in originality. Artists mostly imitated the painting of the Tang and Song eras. The most talented landscape painter who sought to develop the traditions of Song painting was Ni Zan. Among the works of the portrait genre, paintings depicting Yuan emperors were of the greatest interest in terms of their artistic expressiveness. Indian and Tibetan influence increased in sculpture and architecture. From the 14th century In the Buddhist architecture of South China, a new type of brick temple with a semicircular duct vault began to spread. In residential architecture, as before, the type of planning of the estate with four or three pavilions on the sides of a rectangular courtyard still prevailed.

Science and technology

In the Yuan era, some improvements were introduced: a foot-operated spinning wheel, a new version of the silk loom. New types of field irrigation were introduced using bamboo water pipes and a water wheel with scoop buckets. A new field crop, sorghum (kaoliang), spread. Some elements of Mongolian clothing, saddle designs, bowed instruments began to enter everyday life. In the 40s of the XIV century. three new dynastic histories were written.

The most famous scientific discovery the Yuan era was calendar, in which the duration of the year was 365.2425 days, which was only 26 seconds different from the time during which the Earth makes one complete revolution around the Sun. This coincides with the current Gregorian calendar, which appeared 300 years later.

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Science of Ancient China was applied in nature. Mathematics has made great strides. In the II century. BC. a treatise "Mathematics in nine books" was compiled - a kind of guide for surveyors, astronomers, officials, etc. In addition to purely scientific knowledge, the book also presented everyday information: prices for various goods, indicators of agricultural crop yields, etc. Significant achievements of the ancient Chinese in the field of astronomy are associated with the development of mathematics. The solar-lunar calendar of the ancient Chinese was adapted to the needs of agricultural production.

The Chinese improved the plow, created a mechanical engine that uses the power of falling water (water-lifting pump). Early writings contained descriptions of bed crops, systems of variable fields and rotation of crops, various methods of fertilizing the soil and pre-sowing impregnation of seeds, and there were special guidelines for irrigation and melioration. The pinnacle of ancient Chinese scientific knowledge in the field of biology was the cultivation of silkworms and the creation of sericulture technology.

Medicine has developed significantly. Ancient Chinese doctors in the IV-III centuries. BC. began to use acupuncture and moxibustion, developed a guide to dietetics and therapeutic exercises, compiled a collection of various recipes, which contained 280 prescriptions for the treatment of 52 diseases. Among the recommended remedies, along with medicines, some magic tricks are mentioned. However, in later writings, magical methods of treatment are not found. By the 3rd century BC. the use of local anesthesia by the famous doctor Hua Tuo for abdominal operations.

The achievements and discoveries of ancient China far outstripped the scientific thought of the West. Many researchers believe that the key to such success is the special view of its inhabitants on nature. The scientific thought of the East was looking for a harmonious synthesis of the activity of man and nature, which was expressed in a special, highly moral perception of the surrounding world.

China has priority in many technical discoveries and inventions, improvement of technical processes. For example, the technology of smelting copper ore, non-ferrous metal ores (obtaining alloys - for example, bronze) has reached a high level. Already in the IV century. BC. the Chinese made special furnaces for smelting iron ore and were able to produce cast iron; they approached the smelting of steel earlier than other peoples of the world. Shipbuilding has reached a high level: the Chinese rightfully belong to the most developed maritime peoples of antiquity; they sailed their ships in the Pacific and Indian oceans.

Considerable attention was paid in China to the construction of an irrigation system. An outstanding hydraulic structure is the Great Chinese Canal, built in the Qin era (III-II centuries BC). This canal reached 32 kilometers and connected the Huang He and Yangtze rivers. Thanks to him, year-round navigation was carried out along inland waterways with a total length of more than 2000 kilometers.

The achievements of the ancient Chinese in architecture are evidence of advanced construction techniques. The Great Wall of China was built in the 3rd century. BC. on the site of ancient fortifications that existed from the 5th century BC. BC. The wall was made of clay mixed with wicker and faced with stone. During its construction, 300,000 people (convicts and soldiers) worked simultaneously. In 10 years, 750 kilometers of the wall were built. In the future, its length exceeded 4000 kilometers. The Great Wall of China was 8 meters high and 10 meters wide. Towers rose every 100 meters and there were passages with gates. The wall was supposed to protect against barbarian nomads, hostile spirits, and also from the desert (steppe) approaching the cultivated lands of China. She demonstrated the greatness of the Chinese empire. In addition, the wall served as a unique communication system connecting the coastal provinces of China with Tibet. State mail (imperial decrees) was delivered through it, troops were transferred.

A feature of Chinese construction technology was the frame method of buildings: pillars were erected, or columns that formed the base, longitudinal beams were placed on them, and then a gable roof was installed. In the IV century. BC. a bracket was invented that made it possible to make roofs with curved corners: this was how a new type of architectural structure was created - the pagoda. The roof of the pagoda created an ideal air exchange in the dwelling, and also provided the best drainage of rainwater. Road construction is an important indicator of the development of Chinese civilization. During the Qin era, 8,000 kilometers of roads were built. Most of them led to the capital, which was considered the mystical center of the country. The miracle of ancient Chinese engineering was the use of oil and natural gas. Wooden tanks were built to store hydrocarbon raw materials, bamboo gas pipelines were made. There were gas lamps in the cities. Gas heating of dwellings was used. No less surprising is the familiarity of the ancient Chinese with pyrotechnics, various explosive and powder mixtures that were used to make fireworks. Pyrotechnics were used even more widely in ritual practice, in sacred ceremonies, sacrifices, etc.

Ufa State Aviation Technical University

Department of Fatherland History and Cultural Studies

Report on the "History of Science and Technology"

Science and Technology in Ancient China

Baikov Ruslan R.

Faculty ATS Group LP-457

Introduction

The history of ancient China begins with the time of the legendary ruler Fu Xi, who lived 30-40 centuries BC. Supposedly, the gods inspired him to write the sacred book of ancient China, the Yijing, from which the theory emerged that the physical universe arose and develops due to the alternation of yin and yang. Fu Xi is also considered the mythological founding father and the most revered ancient ruler of China.

If we do not take into account the mythological characters, as for the official written historical sources, then they do not mention any rulers of China that preceded the Shang dynasty (1766-1122 BC). It is with the rulers of the Shang Dynasty that the authentic, written history of China begins.

The oldest references to China date back to the time of the ruler Fu Xi, who lived 30-40 centuries BC. Supposedly the gods inspired him to write the sacred book of ancient China, the Yijing, from which came the theory that the physical universe arose and develops due to the alternation of yin and yang. Historical sources do not mention any rulers of China prior to the Shang (1766-1122 BC). The Shang rulers were overthrown by the Zhou dynasty, which first built its capital near modern Xian, and later, around 750 BC. e., fled from the barbarians invading the country and settled near the current Liaoyang.

In the early period of the dynasty, power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor, but later local rulers formed almost independent states. From 770 BC e. these rulers fought fierce wars with each other, and the entire period from 476 to 221. BC e. called "Warring States". At the same time, China was being attacked by barbarians from the north and northeast. Then it was decided to build huge walls to protect the territory. In the end, the main power was concentrated in the hands of Prince Qin, whose army overthrew the ruler Zhou.

The new emperor Qin Shi-Huang-di became the founder of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. e. He was one of the most celebrated emperors in Chinese history and was the first to unify the Chinese empire. After the death of Emperor Qin Shi-Huang-di in 210 BC. e. a struggle for power broke out between provincial governors, and the winner, Liu Bang, founded the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). Under the Han Dynasty, China's territory expanded significantly. After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the struggle for power was launched by 3 kingdoms - Wei, Shu and Wu. After a short time, 16 provinces entered the war. In 581 BC. e. the founder of the Sui dynasty seized power and made efforts to unify the empire. Work began with the Grand Canal, connecting the lower reaches of the Yangtze with the middle reaches of the Yellow River.

After the fall of the Sui Dynasty, in the Tang Dynasty, the history of China reached its peak. It was during this period that China became the most powerful state in the world and represented the main force in East Asia. The population of Xi'an, the capital of the empire, exceeded 1 million people, culture flourished: classical painting developed, arts such as music, dance and opera, magnificent ceramics were produced, and the secret of white translucent porcelain was discovered. Confucian ethics and Buddhism dominated, there was progress in science - mainly in astronomy and geography.

The relevance of the work. Many of the inventions of the ancient Whale are still used today. And it is possible that the fruits of some scientific and cultural discoveries that could be used now have undeservedly remained in the shadows, and perhaps still unknown. Therefore, the study of ancient Chinese achievements in the field of science is relevant both today and in the future.

The aim of the work is to study the science and technology of ancient China.

1. The development of science in ancient China

1.1. Scientific achievements of the Chinese people

China has priority in many technical discoveries and inventions. In particular, the technology of smelting copper ore, non-ferrous metal ores, in the production of alloys, such as bronze, has reached a high level of perfection. From the 1st millennium BC The Chinese knew the processing of iron. In the IV century. BC. they made special furnaces for smelting iron ore and were able to produce cast iron; The Chinese approached steel smelting earlier than other peoples of the world. Shipbuilding has reached a high level, and the Chinese rightfully belong to the most developed maritime peoples of antiquity. Chinese sailors sailed on their ships in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

In China, considerable attention was paid to the construction of an irrigation system. The most outstanding hydraulic structure is the Great Canal of China, built in the Qin era. This canal reached 32 kilometers and connected the Huang He and Yangtze rivers. It carried out year-round navigation on inland waterways with a total length of more than 2,000 kilometers.

The achievements of the ancient Chinese in architecture are impressive, which is the result of the high development of building technology. Here, first of all, it is necessary to say about the Great Wall of China. It was built in the 3rd century. BC. on the basis of ancient fortifications in the form of a moat and a rampart that existed from the 5th century BC. BC. The wall was made of clay mixed with wicker and faced with stone. 300,000 people, convicts and soldiers, simultaneously worked on its construction. In 10 years, 750 kilometers of the wall were built. In the future, its length exceeded 4000 kilometers. The Great Wall of China was 8 meters high and 10 meters wide. Towers rose every 100 meters, there were passages with gates. The wall was supposed to protect against barbarian nomads, hostile spirits, the impending desert and steppe on the cultivated lands of China, and should demonstrate the greatness of the empire and emperor. In addition, the wall served as a unique communication system connecting the Maritime Provinces of China with Tibet. State mail, imperial decrees were delivered through it; troops were moved along it.

The features of Chinese construction technology is the frame method: pillars, or columns, forming a frame were erected; longitudinal beams were laid on them, and a gable roof was installed on them. In the IV century. BC. a bracket was invented that made it possible to make roofs with curved corners; so a new type of architectural structure was created - the pagoda. The roof of the pagoda created an ideal air exchange in the dwelling, and also provided the best drainage of rainwater.

Road construction was also an important indicator of the development of Chinese civilization. During the Qin era, 8,000 kilometers of roads were built. Most of the roads led to the capital, which was considered the mystical center of the country. The miracle of ancient Chinese engineering was the use of oil and natural gas. Wooden tanks were built to store hydrocarbon raw materials. Bamboo pipelines were made. There were gas lamps in the cities. Gas heating of dwellings was used. No less surprising is the familiarity of the ancient Chinese with pyrotechnics, various explosive and powder mixtures that were used to make fireworks. Pyrotechnics were used even more widely in ritual practice, in sacred ceremonies, sacrifices, etc. 1 .

The formation of the education system in China dates back to the 6th century. BC. The first public school was Zhu-chia - "School of educated people", founded in 532 BC. Kung Fu Tzu. History ("Shu-ching"), poetry ("Shi-ching"), rituals ("Li-chi"), "Canon of filial piety" ("Xiao-ching") and "Canon of music" ("Yue-ching") were studied here. jing"); the end of education was the assimilation of the "Book of Changes" ("I-ching"), the rules of divination and the interpretation of hexagrams. Over the years of Kung Fu Tzu's life, 3,000 students received excellent training in his school, who later became outstanding scientists, politicians, and teachers 2 .

Science and knowledge in ancient China also differed in significant originality. There was an idea of ​​five sides of space: in addition to the North, South, West and East, the Center (Zhong) stood out. Hence the special geographical and cartographic knowledge. Hence the special understanding of China as the Center of the Universe, and its capital as the Center of the country. In the Yin era, maps of China were created, in the center of which was placed the cult capital - great city Shan, where the Van's insignia were kept. The sky was represented in the form of a circle, and the earth - in the form of a square. The reflection of Heaven on Earth was China, the only civilized country surrounded by barbarians. The South was of particular importance; the dead were laid in tombs facing the South; the emperor during official ceremonies turned his face to the South. The West was identified with chaos; The East was to the left of the viewer and was conceived as the birthplace of a new life.

Color symbolism corresponded to five sides of space: yellow color (huang) - Center; blue-green color (qing) - East; red (hunchi) - South; white (bay) - West; black (hey) - North. Yellow color was considered the privilege of the sovereign. Black color was a sign of scientists. White color was an attribute of mourning.

The annual cycle was divided into 5 seasons: in addition to autumn, winter, spring and summer, the middle of the year stood out, which fell on the day of the summer solstice, on June 22. It is no coincidence that from this day the year began for the ancient Chinese. Several systems were used in the reckoning. The oldest Yin calendar had 10 months. In the Zhou era, a lunar calendar of 12 months and a solar calendar of 24 months were used. The day was divided into 12 guards. The time was marked by the ringing of the bells of the capital.

Natural science knowledge was based on the idea of ​​five primary elements (wu xing), which took shape in the Zhou era: earth (tu), wood (mu), fire (huo), metal (jin), water (shui). It was believed that these elements are in constant motion, mutual transition, determining the diversity of the world.

The basis of cosmological knowledge was the idea of ​​the interaction of two opposite principles - Yang, the masculine principle, the absolute top, the sun, and Yin, the feminine principle, the absolute bottom, water.

Esoteric geometry and mathematics were of particular importance. Known" magic square"(Lo shu) and" magic cross "(He tu). They were made up of a nine-cell square, which was used in political, administrative and socio-economic practice, it is enough to recall the system of nine fields, as well as in geomancy, medicine and alchemy. The number 1 denoted Yang; 2 - Yin; 3 - the universe (Sky - man - Earth); 4 - chronotope (space-time); 5 - cardinal points; 6 - the beginning of the world; 9 - the universe horizontally; 10 - the sun; 12 - signs of the zodiac .

Philosophy was especially developed in ancient China. The first known philosopher is considered to be Lao Tzu (VI century BC). He, according to legend, compiled a treatise "Tao Te Ching". Here are given the basic principles of the philosophy of Tao, or Taoism. Tao - the path, the achievement of personal spiritual perfection; the idea of ​​Tao denies moral, aesthetic, social values ​​- good and evil, beauty and ugliness, fame and shame, wealth and poverty. The goal of life is proclaimed to be the achievement of the identity of the individual and the world, the acquisition of naturalness (zi-zhan). The main means for this is non-action (wu-wei). In Taoism, a special practice of psycho-training, diet, and physical exercises has developed, designed to reveal natural inclinations.

A younger contemporary of Lao Tzu was Kung Fu Tzu, better known by the Europeanized name Confucius. He developed the doctrine of the noble husband (jun-tzu). A noble husband had to possess five virtues: humanity (jen), decency (li), justice (yi), wisdom (zhi) and fidelity (xing) [Malyavin V.V. Confucius. - M .: Young Guard, 1992.].

Another outstanding sage of Ancient China was Mo Di (5th century BC). He is credited with writing the treatise Mo Tzu, which gives the basic principles of the philosophy of Moism. Mo Di proceeded from the natural equality of human capabilities. "Dignitaries do not always have to be noble, commoners do not always have to be ignoble."

In the VI century. BC. history was born in China. The first historical work is the chronicle "Chun Qiu" ("Spring and Autumn"), edited and commented by Confucius. The very concept of "history" (shu) is first introduced in the work "Shu jing" ("Book of History"), the creation of which is attributed to Confucius. Here mythical and legendary legends about the first ancestors, wise sovereigns are reproduced, documents, appeals of sovereigns, teachings of dignitaries are given; events are brought to the VIII century. BC.

Education, sciences, as well as culture in general, are unthinkable without the cult of the word and its figurative expression in writing. In ancient China, proto-writing is distinguished in the form of kinegrams and trigrams and hieroglyphics. Kinegrams are found already in the Neolithic era in the form of images of circles, spirals, zigzags on ceramic products. According to legend, the hieroglyphs were invented by Zang Jie, the adviser of Huangdi. Bronze tablets were used as writing material. In the III century. BC. books appeared on bamboo slats, connected in bundles. Lacquer tree sap served as ink, and a bamboo stick (bi) served as a pen. In the II century. BC. paper was invented.

Over its more than three thousand years of history, the Chinese people have made a significant contribution to the development of science and technology. Many important discoveries and inventions were made in China several centuries earlier than in other countries, incl. European (the invention of the compass, seismoscope, speedometer, paper, gunpowder, printing, etc.). The era of the formation of sciences in ancient China VI-III centuries. BC is extremely interesting for researchers of the cultural history of this country.

Introduction
1. The development of science in ancient China
2. The development of technology in ancient China

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Introduction
1. The development of science in ancient China
2. The development of technology in ancient China