Interior decoration of the premises is one of the most crucial moments of repair. This is where you will live, what will surround you, what you will breathe from day to day. And here the issues of even not so much beauty as safety and environmental friendliness come to the fore.

What requirements do we place on the materials used for interior decoration? They should be:

• environmentally friendly, there should be no harmful fumes, increased dustiness;
• hypoallergenicity - the interior decoration of the house should not provoke the development of allergies;
• the material must retain heat well - in our climate this is especially important;
• the material should not be easily soiled;
• it must be durable.

Now take a moment and think about it. What material for interior decoration meets all these criteria?

Option one is wood.

Wood is a material used in construction for thousands of years. It is used for both indoor and outdoor work. The material is universal:

- you can build walls from it;

- make floors;

- overlappings;

- decorative carved elements and much more.

Wooden houses are warm in winter and cool in summer. In city apartments, which are decorated with wood and other natural materials, residents are less likely to have allergy attacks, lower blood pressure, higher immunity, the air in such rooms is fresher than in apartments “sheathed” with plastic.

The state of nature as a state of war is characterized by another feature: there are no concepts of just and unjust - "where there is no common power, there is no law, and where there is no law, there is no injustice." Justice is not a natural quality of a person, it is a virtue that is affirmed by people themselves in the process of their self-organization. Laws and conventions are the real basis ("reason," as Hobbes says in places) for the distinction between justice and injustice. In the state of nature, there is generally "nothing obligatory, and everyone can do what he personally considers good." In this state, people act according to the principle of like or dislike, like or dislike; and their personal inclinations turn out to be the real measure of good and evil.

Natural law. In the state of nature, the so-called natural law (right of nature, jus naturale) operates. Hobbes insists on separating the concepts of "right", which means only the freedom of choice, and "law", which means the need to act in a certain established way. The law thus points to an obligation; freedom is on the other side of obligation. Obviously, this is not a liberal understanding of freedom, rights and obligations. Natural law, according to Hobbes, is expressed in "the freedom of each person to use his own forces at his own discretion to preserve his own nature, i.e. his own life." According to natural law, everyone acts in accordance with his desires and everyone decides for himself what is right and what is wrong. "Nature has given everyone the right to everything."

1 Leviathan // Decree. op. S. 97.

2 Ibid[XLVI].S. 511.

3 Ibid. S. 98.

4 Hobbes T. About the citizen // Hobbes T. Op. T. 1. S. 290.

Although war is a consequence of the natural aspirations of a person concerned only with his own good, and in the state of nature there are prerequisites that can keep a person from constant war and incline towards peace. These premises are embodied in the same natural passions of man; but these are special passions - "the fear of death, the desire for things necessary for a good life and the hope of acquiring them with one's diligence." These are the passions of the same egoistic natural individual, but among them one carries an anti-egoistic beginning - this is the hope of ensuring one's own well-being through one's own work. Diligence is at least unselfish, if by egoism we mean the attitude to satisfy one's own needs and interests at the expense of the needs and interests of others. The development of labor leads to the need for cooperation. Work in itself thus contains the potential for solidarity.

But how does this potential open up to a person? A person initially carries this knowledge in himself, and it is revealed to him thanks to the mind given by God. God has imprinted his supreme covenant in the hearts of people. Endowed with reason, a person opens in his heart the path leading to the prevention of war. This is the way of natural laws.

natural laws. Reason initially contains a certain prescription, or a general rule: "Every person must seek peace if he has any hope of achieving it." There may be no such hope, and then nature again begins to speak: protect yourself as best you can. This is the establishment of natural law. The said general rule is the first natural law. If the law says what you can do, then the law says what you should do.

From the first natural law follows the second: “If others agree, a person must agree to renounce the right to all things to the extent necessary in the interests of peace and self-defense, and be content with such a degree of freedom in relation to other people that he I would allow other people in relation to myself. As you can see, the second law turns out to be a restriction of individual rights: Hobbes directly says that it deprives a person of freedom (although it would be more accurate to say: self-will), making the possibility of exercising the right by one person dependent on

Environmental quality standards are established to assess the state of the environment in order to preserve natural ecological systems, the genetic fund of plants, animals and other organisms.

A person in the course of his activity spends up to 80% of his time indoors and about 20% outdoors. Therefore, environmental assessment should be carried out according to criteria characterizing the state of both the external environment and the internal one (premises of industrial and civil buildings). There is no doubt that there is a close connection between these media (Fig. 1.3).

Assessment of the quality of the natural environment is carried out on the basis of established standards. The lower the threshold value of the standards, the higher the quality of the natural environment. However, higher quality requires correspondingly higher costs, efficient technologies and highly sensitive controls. Therefore, as the level of society rises, environmental quality standards tend to become tougher.

Compliance with established environmental quality standards ensures:

• environmental safety of the population;
• preservation of the genetic fund of humans, plants, animals;
• rational use and reproduction natural conditions sustainable development of economic activity.

Rice. 1.3.

The quality standards are based on three indicators (Fig. 1.4):

• 1) medical - sanitary and hygienic purpose (threshold level of threat to human health, its genetic program);
• 2) technological - environmental purpose (the ability to technically and economically ensure the implementation of established standards);
• 3) scientific and technical - auxiliary purpose (availability and possibilities of means for monitoring the values ​​established by the norms).

Medical indicator normalizes the maximum permissible values ​​of parameters that negatively affect a person and his environment. First of all, this includes the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances and the maximum permissible level of harmful physical influences. As already mentioned, the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) is the amount of a harmful substance in the environment, which, with constant or temporary contact over a certain period of time, practically does not affect the health of a person and his offspring. IN Lately when determining MPC, not only the impact on humans, but also on the biota as a whole is taken into account. MPCs are not once and for all established norms: as society develops, their number increases, the values ​​are refined.

Rice. 1.4.

The toxicological characteristics of technological processes are based on recommendations for changing production processes to reduce or eliminate the amount of harmful emissions, sanitary and technical requirements for the layout of production facilities, technological equipment, including treatment equipment, and, if necessary, personal protective equipment. These requirements and recommendations are based on the concept of the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances in various media.

Air environment:

MPC p1 - maximum allowable concentration of a substance in the air of the working area, mg/m 3 . This is such a concentration that during daily (except weekends) work within 8 hours during the entire working experience should not cause diseases or detectable modern methods studies of deviations in the state of health of the present and subsequent generations (a working area is considered to be a space up to 2 m above the floor level or a platform on which there are places of permanent or temporary stay of workers);

MPC ss - maximum allowable average daily concentration of a toxic substance in the air of populated areas, mg / m 3 - concentration that does not have a direct or indirect adverse effect on present or future generations, does not reduce a person's performance, does not worsen his well-being with indefinitely long (years) inhalation.

MPC mr - maximum permissible single concentration of substances, mg / m 3 - concentration that does not cause reflex reactions in the human body when inhaled for 20-30 minutes (despite the fact that the occurrence of such reactions depends not only on the content of the substance in the air, but also on the duration of inhalation).

Currently, the maximum permissible concentrations in the atmospheric air for more than 500 substances have been determined. The values ​​of MPC mr and MPC ss for the most common impurities in the atmospheric air are given in Table. 1.4. The rightmost column of the table shows the hazard classes of substances: class 1 - extremely dangerous, class 2 - highly dangerous, class 3 - moderately dangerous and class 4 - low hazard. These classes are designed for continuous inhalation of substances without changing their concentration over time. In real conditions, significant increases in the concentrations of impurities are possible, which can lead to a sharp deterioration in the human condition in a short time interval.

Table 1.4. Maximum allowable concentrations (MPC) in the atmospheric air of populated areas

Water environment:

MPC in - maximum allowable concentration of a substance in the water of a reservoir for drinking and domestic water use, mg/l. This concentration should not have a direct or indirect effect on human organs throughout his life, as well as on the health of subsequent generations, and should not worsen the hygienic conditions for water use;

MPC^ - the maximum allowable concentration of a substance in the water of a reservoir used for fishery purposes. This is the limit for water pollution. water bodies having fishery importance mg/l.

In addition, the following integral indicators for water in reservoirs have been established:

BOD - biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen used in biochemical processes oxidation organic matter(excluding nitrification processes) for a certain time of sample incubation (2, 5, 20, 120 days), mg/l of water (BOD^ - for 20 days, BOD$ - for 5 days);

COD - chemical oxygen demand, determined by the bichromate method, that is, the amount of oxygen for the oxidation of all reducing agents contained in water, mg/l.

In relation to BOD/COD, the efficiency of biochemical oxidation of substances is judged.

MPC p - maximum allowable concentration of a substance in the topsoil, mg/kg. This concentration should not cause a negative direct and indirect effect on human health, as well as on the self-cleaning capacity of the soil;

MPC pr (DOK) - maximum allowable concentration(permissible residual amount) substances in food, mg/kg.

If the MPC value in various environments is not established, then the temporary hygienic standard VDC (OBUV) is in effect - the temporarily permissible concentration (approximately safe level of exposure) of the substance. The temporary standard is set for a period of not more than 2-3 years. For toxic substances, a safe concentration can be determined in fractions of a unit:

Where With - the actual concentration of a substance in the environment, with MPC - the maximum allowable concentration.

Different substances can have similar adverse (unidirectional) effects on a person or his environment. For example, there is a summation effect for nitrogen dioxide and formaldehyde, phenol and acetone, ethanol and whole group organic substances. In this case, the degree of influence of several substances S is defined like this:

where s, s pdyu. - respectively, the actual and maximum allowable concentration of the i-th substance.

If S> 1, then the total pollution exceeds the permissible limits.

Example: Let's say that the concentration of phenol in the air is With.\u003d 0.345 mg / m 3, acetone with ac \u003d 0.009 mg / m 3, and c ^. \u003d 0.35 mg / m 3, with MPC \u003d 0.01 mg / m 3. Thus, for each of the substances, the indicated ratio is less than 1:

but since these substances have a summation effect, the total pollution of phenol and acetone will exceed the maximum allowable, since

V I "44" 1SHMC

There may be cases when sources of emissions and discharges do not exceed the standards and MPCs of individual, non-unidirectional pollutants in the environment, but in general, the environmental situation is assessed as critical. This occurs in the case of an increase in the effect of toxicity of exposure during the interaction various substances. Such an effect is called synergy. The issues of synergy have not yet been studied, although the need for this knowledge to protect the natural environment is obvious.

Technological indicator determines the environmental friendliness of the technologies used, the raw materials used and the finished products. Its impact on the environment is determined by the standards of permissible anthropogenic load on the environment (NDAN). These standards are established in accordance with the value of the allowable cumulative impact of all sources on the environment or on its individual components, and if they are observed, the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems is ensured.

The standards for the permissible anthropogenic load on the environment and the environmental quality standards determine the standards maximum allowable emissions(MPE) for air and discharge limits(PDS) for water bodies. MPE and MPD are established by calculation taking into account technological standards and background environmental pollution.

In exceptional cases, when for objective reasons it is impossible to establish MPE or MPD (development of new types of production at existing enterprises, reconstruction of enterprises, etc.) > introduce temporary limits on emissions - temporarily agreed emission (TSV), and discharges - temporarily agreed discharge (VSS) harmful substances and microorganisms. Limits are set for a period of gradual achievement of maximum allowable emissions and maximum allowable discharges, subject to compliance with technological standards and the availability of an approved plan to reduce emissions of harmful substances in atmospheric air. Technological standard- the standard for permissible emissions and discharges of substances and microorganisms, which is established for stationary, mobile and other sources, technological processes, equipment and reflects the permissible mass of emissions and discharges of substances and microorganisms into the environment per unit of output.

The technological indicator is closely related to urban planning standards and, above all, to sanitary territorial gaps. The technological indicator can be summarized as a diagram of interconnected and mutually subordinate relationships (Fig. 1.5).

Rice. 1.5.

The third group of standards - scientific and technical indicator(see Fig. 1.4) constitute auxiliary activities, including terminology standards, organizational and legal standards.

natural qualities

We are all born in the bosom of our beautiful world and live our lives in it. Accordingly, the universal immateriality of nature directly penetrates into our souls and is deposited in them. Because of this, the human soul has:

• A) natural qualities as such;
• b) natural states;
• c) the ability to feeling.

Natural qualities as such

Universal natural qualities . Plants and animals are in direct unity with the cosmic and meteorological life of the planet. People also have a direct connection with nature, but to a lesser extent. The more people are educated and separated from it by the benefits of civilization, the less they are dependent on the processes taking place in it.

Change of seasons. In humans, the change of seasons manifests itself in the form of a change predispositions souls. Conditions winters dispose to self-deepening, to learning, to focusing our forces on creativity and home life. Spring enhances the feeling of natural unity of the individual with the family, which, on the one hand, is expressed in an increase in attraction to the opposite sex, and on the other, in an aggravated sense of loneliness. Summer- a fussy time when a person feels that he has escaped (or pushed) out of the usual rhythm of everyday work to freedom. It is conducive to active recreation, to rapprochement with nature, to travel. autumn there is a growing predisposition to restore the rhythm of work and life, to consolidate the results achieved, to switch a person's attention to creativity, to creation.

And every autumn I bloom again.

Russian cold is good for my health.

Desires boil - I'm happy again, young,

I am full of life again...

A.S. Pushkin

Alternating time of day causes change mood souls. In the morning the soul is still in a state of immersion in itself, in the essential world of man. Therefore, in the morning we are dominated by a mood of concentration and seriousness in relation to the upcoming affairs. Afternoon the soul indulges in work, during which it intensively perceives the diverse material of the reality surrounding us. In the evening the soul is in a state of dispersal. She is tuned in to abstract thoughts and entertainment. At night the human soul passes into a state of concentration in itself. During sleep, all the diversity of daytime impressions plunges into the depths of the soul and is sensually experienced by it.

weather change. Plants and animals foresee a change in the weather for a long time, which is clearly reflected in their behavior. Changes in the weather also affect well-being of people. If the temperature per day changes by 15-20 degrees and, accordingly, changes Atmosphere pressure, it affects the condition of all people. Less sudden weather changes are felt weather sensitive People. But unlike the change of seasons and the alternation of parts of the day, which are subject to a certain pattern, weather changes are less predictable.

Special natural qualities determined by the following factors:

• - religious;
• - national;
• - family (tribal);
• - zodiac.

Religions. Being a basic element of the culture of peoples, religion leaves its mark on the spiritual warehouse of the people who profess it. The first difference is between representatives of world religions: Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Further differences are already observed within the religions themselves. The Christian world is divided into Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox and other confessions. The Islamic world - on Sunnis and Shiites. In Buddhism - Mahayana, Lamaism, Tantrism.

All the differences contained in religions are reflected in the spiritual qualities of people. But with varying degrees of intensity, which depends on the conditions of upbringing, the level of education, the ideology of society in relation to the church. For some people, they may appear more, for others - less, but if we take as a whole the whole people professing a particular religion, then these differences appear very clearly: Christian Europe, the Muslim Near and Middle East, Buddhist China and Southeast Asia .

Nations. In the formation of the national qualities of a particular people, the influence geographical features territories of his residence: the sea, the steppe, the tundra, the mountains... We single out the character mountain, steppe, northern peoples. Territory of residence great Peoples includes, as a rule, a diverse relief: forests, steppes, mountains, sea, which is also reflected in their national character.

In addition to external factors, in the course of the formation of the national spirit of peoples, their reflection in relation to each other plays a significant role. Each nation, striving to realize its originality, develops in itself those special qualities that are less developed in others. In other words, the traits of the national character developed according to the principle "what one likes, another is not good for." As a result, today at the mention of such words as a Englishman, Frenchman, Italian, German, Russian, Chinese etc., in our mind, a quite definite image of a person appears, which differs from all the others in a set of its national spiritual qualities.

Family (generic) qualities. They also have a place to be and be inherited. They say, for example: "Everyone in our family sings well." Or: "They have a whole family obsessed with cats."

Zodiac types. In addition to religious, national and family qualities, people also differ in the zodiacal features of their mental makeup. Someone takes into account these differences, someone does not, but almost no one denies their existence.

religious, national, tribal And zodiacal differences form the special natural qualities of human souls. They manifest themselves through their appearance, lifestyle, their predisposition to certain types of activities, professions, etc. However, highlighting these qualities, it is important to remember that they all refer only to steps natural definitions souls. The consciousness of people is free from these qualities and does not depend on them. And this means that segregation theorists of all stripes - racists, nationalists and religious fundamentalists - should understand that all arguments about the spiritual superiority of one race, nation or religion over others do not contain any truth! The main thing in a person is the mind, for which there are no restrictions associated with the natural qualities of the soul.

TO single natural qualities relate:

• a) natural inclinations: talent And genius;
• b) temperament;
• c) character.

TO natural inclinations belong talent And genius. Both words express a certain predisposition that a person receives from nature, but genius is wider than talent. Genius creates something new in the field universal, whereas talent generates something new only in the sphere special. In other words, genius creates (develops) a new principle, while talent operates within the boundaries of what has already been discovered.

If talent and genius are manifested through one or another type of activity, then temperament has no direct connection with the difference in the types of activities of people. It cannot be said that all musicians are sanguine and librarians are phlegmatic. The main difference between the generally accepted types of temperament is sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric And melancholy - lies in how subjective world human is integrated into objective processes . One person easily tunes in to work and immediately begins to perform it. Others, on the contrary, need time to internally prepare for it. Some football players warm up before the game. Others, on the contrary, sit in a relaxed state. One person needs a measured way of life, where everything goes "according to the schedule", and at the same time he does not forget about anything and manages to do everything. The other person is more easily reorganized from one job to another, but that is why he is less predictable and reliable. natural feeling feeling

The contrast of different types of temperament in antiquity and in the Middle Ages appeared in the behavior of people more sharply and directly than at the present time. In the modern urbanized and technologically advanced world, the parameters of human behavior are already set mainly by society - education and the moral norms operating in it.

Unlike temperament. character a person is what distinguishes him from all other people. Only through character does a person acquire his stable certainty, his individuality. Character is the procedural side of a person's activity, during which he, not allowing himself to be led astray from the chosen path, pursues his goals and interests, maintaining agreement with himself in all actions. A person with character impresses other people, because they know who they are dealing with in his face. Every man should be required to show character.

If makings And temperament human beings are of natural origin, character, as they say, it will come with time. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that character also has a natural basis, that some people are already from birth predisposed to possessing a stronger character than others.

More unique qualities of human souls include idiosyncrasies : fear of heights, a tendency to steal, the ability to move your ears, the ability to easily sit on a twine, multiply large numbers in your mind, feel sympathy for some words and names and dislike for others, etc. These properties are of a single, random nature and therefore cannot have a universal value.