Annotation. The historical characteristics of the main stages in the evolution of the Communist Party as a social phenomenon that played an exceptional role in national history 20th century The decisive factors of a qualitative change in the party structure, which contributed to its departure from the political arena of the country, are shown.

Key words: party, revolution, bureaucracy, nomenklatura, rebirth, oligarchy.

The revolutionary events in Russia in 1917 are also of interest because it is impossible to understand modern Russian society without what happened a century ago. This historical past is extremely capacious in its content, but this does not exclude the possibility of choosing individual fragments and analyzing them. historical development.

From this point of view, the main stages in the evolution of such a historical phenomenon as the Communist Party are considered. It is known that at the beginning of the XX century. Russia's economic backwardness was increasingly recognized by public thought, and the overthrow of the monarchy was seen as a condition for the further development of the country. Marxism that arose in Europe, transferred to Russia, acquired the features of Russian Marxism as an irreconcilable class struggle. In March 1898, the First Congress of Russian Marxists was held, at which the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, the RSDLP, was proclaimed. This small party in its struggle for power was guided by the Russian proletariat. The party members of that time were people who were deeply convinced of the possibility of building socialism and communism in Russia, and in this they found the strength to endure the hardships of exile and prisons, to overcome the stupefying life of the layman and the bourgeois. Russia's participation in the First World War turned out to be far from military success, which contributed to the overthrow of the monarchy. But the Provisional Government that came to power did not consider it necessary to change the economic and social order in the country, although the "other" power that arose during the February Revolution - the Soviets - insisted on social reforms. The political crisis grew. Under such conditions it is enough

even if a small party had taken a bold step, and full power would have been in its hands. And such a step on the night of October 25, 1917 was made by the Bolshevik wing of the RSDLP. Thus, the October Revolution, which in 1934, at the suggestion of I.V. Stalin began to be called the Great October Revolution, was carried out by professional revolutionaries. Thus, the task for which the party was created was solved. And now a more complex and difficult task- building a socialist, and then a communist society.

But the historical backwardness of Russia turned such a construction into an "architectural" task, especially since "socialism" had to be "built" with "material" of a very "low quality". And the party was too small in number to provide state posts with its supporters. Therefore, representatives of other social groups poured into the resulting “power vacuum”, for the majority of which careerism became the defining motive. Started in 1918 Civil War demanded the creation of an army, which became not only a school primary education tens of thousands of workers and peasants, but also future party and state managers, who, after the service, as a rule, proved in practice their commitment to the Soviet regime, determining the labor and military victories of that time. On the other hand, the stronger Soviet authority, the process went on all the more vigorously, when a numerous type of inhabitant and petty bourgeois of pre-revolutionary Russia stubbornly and persistently made its way into party and state structures.

Thus, along with communists by conviction, there appeared in the party communists in name, who, hiding behind revolutionary phrases, are step by step ousting the "old" Bolshevik guard. After the VII Congress on March 6-8, 1918, the party became known as the Russian Communist Party of Bolsheviks - RCP (b), and at the X Congress (March 1921) the "purge" of the party begins. However, as before, many aspired to become members of the party, since this made it possible to get into more privileged structures, primarily in the party bureaucracy. The dilemma of the historical orientation in the development of the Soviet state was becoming more and more clear: whether it should be in the interests of the working people or whether it would be aimed at strengthening the power of the privileged part of society. The death of Lenin and the new economic policy determined the second stage in the evolution of the party structure. In the early 1930s, sharp interpersonal clashes arose in higher

echelons of the party and the state, which developed into actions incomparable with the nature of these relations. And the level of culture of the party members of that time gave rise to a special perception of political leaders. There is a cult of personality I.V. Stalin, and any doubt in the party decisions was regarded as support for the bourgeois elements.

The sincere faith of millions of people in a bright future was clothed in such an almost religious-mystical form, which was a powerful incentive for labor, and later military exploits. Thus, the party of revolutionaries, step by step, turned into a party-bureaucratic structure, which learned to hide the real state of affairs. And at the XVIII Congress in March 1934, it was proclaimed "the construction of socialism in the main", and the party became known as the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks - VKP(b). From the point of view of modern realities, one can see that, in essence, the “construction” of state capitalism was going on, in which the party elite occupied an authoritative position, which, with severe suspicion, “protected” it from numerous “enemies of the people”. Thus, the party of revolutionaries, ready for hardships in the name of socialist and communist ideals, is gradually turning into a party nomenklatura, which in many respects carried the psychology of petty-bourgeois Russia, which replaced Marxist teaching with revolutionary phraseology and Stalinist quotations.

It is hard to imagine what the political bacchanalia that was conducted with the "enemies of the people" would have led to if it were not for the events of the Patriotic War, when the ambitions of the party leadership were intertwined with the greatness of the spiritual strength of millions of people. Here it is impossible not to note the role played by the primary party organizations, which solved numerous issues of political and economic work on the ground, and in the army ideologically rallied the personnel and helped in solving combat missions. Patriotic War muffled party strife, but after the Victory they come to life again. The personality cult of I.V. Stalin, the activities of the party organs moved further and further away from Leninist principles. But on the other hand, during the war years, a huge number of front-line soldiers joined the CPSU (b), which required a renewal of the administrative and economic personnel of the state. This was held at the 19th Party Congress in October 1952, at which the party was renamed the Communist Party. Soviet Union- CPSU. But the congress did not formulate either prospects for economic development or ways to overcome social tensions.

With the death of I.V. Stalin March 5, 1953 begins the third stage in the political evolution of the party. Sharp political disagreements arise, especially after the XX Party Congress (February 1956) N.S. Khrushchev managed to present himself as a leader who cares about raising the standard of living of the people, but subsequent ill-conceived reforms led to his resignation. After the October Plenum of 1964, the party leadership, headed by the General Secretary of the Party L.I. Brezhnev, which he became in April 1966 at the 23rd Party Congress, strengthens ideological conservatism. There is a cult of personality L.I. Brezhnev, who became a kind of symbol of the unity of the nomenklatura. Party congresses began to meet regularly every five years, which in fact turned out to be a carefully prepared unanimous approval of directives drawn up by the governing bodies. In the 1970s, political control was increasingly carried out by high-ranking party officials.

And the country's constitution, adopted in 1977, resolutely affirmed the leading role of the Communist Party, preserving the appearance of collective leadership surrounded by one person - the Party's General Secretary. The political appearance of stability of the Brezhnev era led to the flourishing of the nomenklatura elite, confident in itself, in its rights and in its future. But on the other hand, this testified to the futility of attempts to create a new type of socio-economic relations in accordance with Marxist teachings. Therefore, the appearance of M.S. Gorbachev and his reform activities initially raised doubts. Under the slogans of "glasnost" and "perestroika", a crisis became apparent in the party, which was unable to carry out political reforms. Step by step, especially since 1990, M.S. Gorbachev ceded power to Russian President B.N. Yeltsin.

And an attempt to make coup d'état in August 1991 not only accelerated the collapse of the USSR, but also became the reason for the suspension of the activities of the CPSU, and then its ban. Thus, as a result, the selfless struggle of the revolutionaries in the name of a just society led to the emergence of new ruling classes. These are not only the current oligarchs, but also the administrative-state bureaucracy, which subjugates everything and everyone. As for the Communist Party, one can say about it by paraphrasing the well-known saying, which was loved by the classics of Marxism: “You dug well, old mole!”

Sidorov V.G. (Krasnodar city)

historical time. Stages of development (periodization) of the historical process

History is the science of the past, so the concept of time is key in it. Any event, any historical fact are chronologically linked. Dating events is the most important research operation. Each scientific work there are chronological frames in history.

There is no absolute and generally accepted scale in history, all systems of measuring time are relative, conditional, associated with a specific era. They are studied by a special science, an auxiliary historical discipline - historical chronology. She learns various systems chronology, used in different historical eras by individual peoples, and helps to date historical sources and the events described in them, to translate one scale of measuring time into another.

But the concept of historical time is wider than a simple chronological scale. With its help, the historian organizes the field of his research. Any research is based on the principle of historicism (see paragraph 3.1), that is, it describes the birth of a phenomenon, process or event, its development, climax, extinction and death. Thus, the scientist describes the stages and periods of development, gives them estimates and characteristics: for example, such and such a set of facts is attributed to the period of climax, and this one is evidence of degradation, decline.

The first such scheme arose in the Renaissance, when the history of mankind was divided into Antiquity - the Middle Ages - the Renaissance, that is, the revival of Antiquity. The division was value and attitude: Antiquity and the Renaissance were declared the highest points in the development of the human spirit, history and culture, and the period between them - the Middle Ages - was a dark, gloomy era (this word is still synonymous with backwardness, underdevelopment, etc.).

Today, this scheme, adopted in modern historiography, has been developed to the following:

• - primitive era - from the birth of mankind to the emergence of ancient Eastern and ancient states;
• - Ancient world (Ancient East and Antiquity). As applied to Europe, Antiquity lasts until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, that is, until 476;
• - Middle Ages (476 - end of the 15th century). The marker separating the Middle Ages from the early modern times is the Great geographical discoveries of the late 15th - early 16th centuries, the Renaissance and the Reformation. The latter took place in different countries ah at different times, so the border between the Middle Ages and the early modern times is somewhat blurred. But it is generally accepted that in Europe it takes place somewhere at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century;
• - early modern (end of the 15th - 17th centuries) - from the Renaissance to the creation of nation-states in Europe and the emergence of modern European empires. Usually, the period after the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) is considered the boundary, when the so-called Westphalian system of sovereign states was created. European states, which in its fundamental features existed for almost two centuries;
• - new time (XVIII - early XX century), the era of the great colonial empires and the heyday of European nations. The boundary separating the New Age from the Newest is the First World War of 1914-1918;
• - Newest time (XX century) - from the First World War, which led to the death of four European empires (Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman and Russian), to the present day. However, some authors believe that the last 15-30 years (the time of the historical activity of the last living generation) should be singled out as a separate period - modern history(contemporary history).

In addition, there are periodizations associated with the transition of society from one stage of socio-economic development to another. Here allocate formation theory (the primitive system, or primitive communism - slavery - feudalism - capitalism with its highest stage, imperialism, - communism with its first stage, socialism; see paragraph 5.4 for more details) and the theory of the transition of society from agricultural To industrial and on to post-industrial (informational ).

The problem with all these periodizations is that they work for certain regions, countries and peoples and are not universal for all mankind. Often simultaneously existing societies are at different stages of development. This is especially evident in the modern era, when the globe some societies are still agrarian, some are going through an industrial stage, and the most highly developed have entered the information age. But in this case, when on the same planet there simultaneously exist societies belonging to different scales on the periodization ruler, the very idea of ​​periodization loses its meaning.

The concept of historical time is used to identify the synchronization and desynchronization of historical processes, their synchronicity with respect to each other or its absence.

The fundamental features of historical time are the same as those of time as physical phenomenon: it is continuously flowing, and it is finite. All historical formations sooner or later become a thing of the past. Empires perish, states collapse, peoples disappear. This process is unstoppable, inevitable and irreversible. Everything is constantly changing, and people are children of their time.

In this regard, an extremely important question for the historian arises: are not the changes associated with time, with the chronological distance of the historian from the subject of his research, so significant that we risk losing understanding of the past and simply attributing modern assessments to it? In science, this phenomenon is called preseptism (from English. present - "present time"): when the assessment and characterization of the past is due to the present, modern worldview of the scientist. On the one hand, the bias of such studies, their inadequacy to the past, is obvious. On the other hand, it is not clear how to avoid this: after all, the essence of scientific historical research is the translation of the language of the source into the language of science, the classification and analysis of information from chronicles, letters, etc. by using modern techniques. And they, by definition, bear the stamp of the modern scientific world, and this is irresistible.

Any historical research is multi-layered temporal structure. The first layer is time, the history of which is studied in this paper. The second layer is the time for evaluating an event from the point of view of its result (the direct participants in the events often do not know that they are creating a revolution, unleashing world war etc.). The third layer is a reflection of what happened in the sources (they can be separated from the events described for many years). Fourth - the time of formation of the image of the event in the historical memory of the people (may not coincide with the image in the sources both meaningfully and chronologically). Fifth, sixth, seventh, etc. layers - the times of life and work of historians (Historian-1, Historian-2, Historian-3, etc.), who wrote about this event, gave it an assessment, fixed it in the historical memory of the people at different stages of development of the historiography of this issue. The last layer is the time of the reader of historical writings. Actually, the image of an event in history is a "dry residue" that is formed in the reader's mind and reflects all the listed stages of historical time.

Any of these layers has an impact on the image of the past, on the appearance, evaluation and characterization historical event. This must be remembered when assessing the reliability of the scientific reconstruction of the past and the adequacy of the historian's opinion regarding past events. "The past and the present always shed light on each other," according to the French historian F. Braudel.

The next important question for historians is the length of historical time. Historians-positivists mainly pay attention to short temporal phenomena - events, phenomena, facts.

“An event is an explosion, “ringing news”, as they said in the 16th century. Its intoxication fills everything, but it is short-lived, and its flame is barely noticeable ... At first glance, the past is a mass of small facts, some of which amaze you, others, on the contrary, constantly repeating themselves, almost do not attract your attention.These are the facts that microsociology and sociometry are exploring today (there is also microhistory.) But this mass of facts does not cover all reality, all the intertwining of history through which scientific thinking makes its way. The science of society is terrified of a mass of insignificant events, and not without reason: short duration is the most capricious, the most deceptive of all forms of activity.Therefore, some historians develop a wary attitude towards traditional history, the so-called history of events".

Other directions (civilizational approach, structuralism, economic and social history etc.) propose to study "structures of long duration", socio-economic and cultural processes extended in time, the influence and historical role of which are visible over long chronological periods. According to Braudel, "... the price curve, the demographic progression, the decline wages, changes in bank interest, the study of production ... an accurate analysis of commodity circulation - all this requires a much longer scale of time ".

Fundamentally, there is the question of the direction of movement of historical time. It is generally accepted that history develops linearly (there is even an expression "time ruler"). At the same time, representatives of the civilizational approach and historical structuralism, working with long time structures, speak of cycles of historical development , about the cyclic nature of historical time, which flows not linearly, but along a sinusoid. At the same time, the linear flow of time is not identical to progress; time can also lead to regression. For different historical subjects, historical time flows at different speeds.

The statement of the Russian historian M. P. Lapteva seems to be accurate: “History is far from the linearity attributed to it - whether it be “linear progress” or “linear regression”. It can be understood as a wave process with many transitions, the result of which is not predetermined ... time is characterized by endless breaks and leaps, it has a different content in different historical periods, having the ability to become more saturated, more capacious, more intense.

The problem of historical time for the researcher also lies in the fact that he himself is a product and participant of this time. A person cannot "soar" over time, he always proceeds from his own assessments and expectations of the past, present and future.

"The description and analysis of social processes depend on the position of the observer in time, on what exactly is "past", "present" and "future" for him, and, accordingly, on his ideas about each of these three components of his time process " memory" (knowledge, information, ideas about the past) and his expectations (forecasts, ideas about the future). Finally, the degree of awareness by the researcher of his dual role of observer and acting is essential ".

The past tense, especially when it is many centuries away, is for the historian something else, some other world. This notion as applied to historical time was revealed by Fichte and Dilthey.

"Concept another means the awareness by the acting subject of another subject as non-self. The other is not-me. Two possibilities follow from this: the other may be the same as me, and not the same as me. This is fully applicable to historical studies, in which the concept of the past as Other in relation to the present may mean identifying as similarities, so differences between past and present."

Indeed, the study of the past bears all the features of the study of another world. There are areas of the known and the unknown, the known and the unknown, the understandable and the incomprehensible, the recognizable and the alien. No wonder the metaphor of travel is often used in relation to the past. All historians dream of a time machine that will allow them to study the past through direct observations, expeditions to distant years. Of course, this is a fantastic image, but it very accurately conveys the attitude of historians to the subject of their study.

"An interesting approach was proposed by the famous English specialist in the field of the history of political thought M. Oakeshot, who put forward the idea of ​​the existence of three pasts. The first is the past present in the present, which he calls "practical", "pragmatic", "didactic", etc. This past is not only present in the present, it is part of the present: the houses we live in, the books we read, the sayings we repeat, etc., i.e. everything we use in the present, created in the past.This past is not separate from the present, it is his integral part, and in this sense it is the practical, or utilitarian, past.

The second past, according to Oakeshot, is fixed (recorded) past. It's about about the products of past human activity, clearly perceived as created in the past. In fact, these may be the same elements that make up the pragmatic past: houses, books, etc., but clearly identified with the past. In addition, this past includes those items that may not be used at all in the present, such as archival documents.

Stages of development historical science The transformation of historical knowledge into historical science has been carried out for a long time. Now the following most important stages are distinguished in the development of historical science.

Story ancient world . At first, historical thought developed in the form of legends and myths. A feature of mythological thinking, characteristic of many ancient peoples, was historical pessimism - the idea that "what was before is better than now." Thus, the ancient Indians believed that the “golden age” of mankind had already passed, and ahead was only hard work and all kinds of trials. In addition, mythological thinking connected the course of history with the deeds of the gods. So, in Homer's Iliad, the reason Trojan War served as a quarrel of the goddesses. At the same time, a concept was developed, according to which the heroes create history with the help and at the will of the gods. In general, the history of mankind was presented to them as a manifestation of the will of a deity: Fate determined the fate of peoples. The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BC) believed that the development of history is due to the discoveries and inventions of geniuses. The highest achievements of historical thought in the era of the Ancient World were the works of ancient authors - Herodotus and Thucydides. Greek historian Herodotus(between 490 and 480-ca. 425 BC) was considered the "father of history." He described Ancient Greece, as well as the peoples and countries he visited: Persia, Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Scythia. His main work is the History of the Greco-Persian Wars. The ancient Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460-400 BC) is the author of the "History", which includes eight books on the Peloponnesian War, and is considered the pinnacle of ancient historiography. Polybius (c. 200-c. 120 BC) was also a great ancient historian, who attempted to create a world history. His work "History" (40 books) covers the history of Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Rome and other countries from 220 to 146 BC.

In the Ancient East, the cult of the past also played an important role. So, in China, each specific ruler (subsequently after the unification of China - at the court of the emperor) had a historiographer. By the 2nd century BC. accumulated many chronicles. These sources were summarized by the son of the court historiographer Sima Tan - Sima Qian (145 or 135 - c. 86 BC), nicknamed the "Chinese Herodotus". The main work of his whole life was Historical Notes (Shi Tsei), which had a significant impact on the development of historical science in China. From that time in China, the histories of all the ruling dynasties began to be compiled.

Historical thought of the Middle Ages developed under the influence of church-religious ideology, therefore, in the writings belonging to historians of different countries and peoples of this period, the process of social development was interpreted idealistically. The leading historical concept of early medieval thought Western Europe became a concept providentialism(by the will of providence), developed by Augustine the Blessed (354-430). Popular, as in ancient times, was the theory of great people and heroes. Among the European historians of this era, Gregory of Tours (538 or 539-593 or 594), Raul Glaber (985 - c. 1047), Michael Psellos (1018-c. 1078 or c. 1096) are distinguished. Gregory of Tours is the author of the "History of the Franks" in ten books. This work is considered historical monument early Middle Ages. In the Arab East, the most prominent historians were the authors of the "general histories" Yakubi (X century AD), Abu Hanif ad-Dinaveri (IX century) and Tabari (late IX - early X centuries). in China in the 11th century. statesman and historian Sim Guang created a huge work (294 books), covering the history of the Chinese people from the 5th to the end of the 9th centuries.

In medieval Russia early XII V. an outstanding work of Russian socio-political thought was created "The Tale of Bygone Years", the author of which is called the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery chronicler Nestor. Then the "Word of Igor's Campaign" appeared, dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich of Novgorod-Seversky against the Polovtsians. The author notes the perniciousness of the fragmented state of the Russian principalities and the need for their unity in the face of the threat of enemy invasion.

The study of the history of mankind received a new development in the Renaissance, the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, when the cultural heritage of antiquity was opposed to the dominance of medieval religious ideology. Interest in ancient monuments is growing. New approaches to understanding history were born. Italian political figure N. Machiavelli (1469-1527) in his work "The Sovereign" (1513) named one of the reasons for the struggle of people in history - property.

In the era of modern times some Western European historians and philosophers, rejecting the idea of ​​God as the creator of history, tried to explain the causal relationship of the material world on the basis of itself. Italian philosopher, one of the founders of historicism D. Vico (1668-1774) argued that the historical process has an objective and providential character. All nations develop in cycles consisting of three epochs: divine (stateless state, subjection to priests); heroic (aristocratic state) and human (democratic republic or representative monarchy). A. Turgot (1727-1781) - French statesman, philosopher-educator, economist - believed that society history drives the human mind. Philosophers of modern times believed that ideas rule the world. They also developed after Cicero (106-43 BC) the idea of ​​natural law and later came to the idea of ​​an enlightened monarch. However, in general, Western European historical science of the period of the formation and establishment of capitalist relations, i.e. New time, despite the struggle with the feudal-church views on the history of society, remained on idealistic positions. The views of scientists of that time are characterized by dualism: approaching the phenomena of nature materialistically), they remained supporters of idealism in the study of history, explaining the course of the historical process as a manifestation of the “will of God”, “divine providence”, “divine world spirit” or absolute “idea”. Its largest representatives in the West were F. Guizot (1787-1874), O. Thierry (1795-1856), M. Henry (1818-1881), T. Carlyle (1795-1881), M. Macaulay (1800-1859) . French historians F. Guizot, O. Thierry in the first half of the 19th century. created a bourgeois theory of the class struggle, in which they recognized class differences in society, but denied the exploitative nature of the bourgeois state. In the 19th century German historians F. Schlosser and V. Onkekn created the World History (19 and 46 volumes, respectively).

Of great importance for the development of historical science was the approval in the 19th century. historical method of knowledge, also, to a certain extent, Marxism. historical method The (principle) of approaching reality as changing, developing in time, was recognized by representatives of German classical idealism, for example, Hegel (1770-1831). The principle of historicism was developed by K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895). His distinguishing feature- distribution to all spheres of objective reality - nature, society, thinking. Marx and Engels wrote: “History can be viewed from two sides, it can be divided into the history of nature and the history of people. However, both sides are inextricably linked.

in Russia in the 18th century. the first attempts were made to create a systematized code of national history. This is a 7-volume "Russian History" by V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1756), "Russian History" by M.M. Shcherbatov (1733-1799) in 20 books. The largest Russian historian was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826). His main work is The History of the Russian State. This work was followed by the 29-volume "History of Russia from Ancient Times" by S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879), "Russian History" by N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) and "The Course of Russian History" by V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911).

In modern times historical science has developed rapidly(late XIX-XX centuries). At this stage, various concepts of historical development were developed in Western historical science. The Englishman A. Toynbee (1889-1975), the Americans M. Weber (1864-1920), M. Block (1886-1944), A. Tofleur (b. 1928) and others should be mentioned. Among the most famous Russian historians of modern times are F .Platonov (1860-1933), M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932), E.V. Tarle (1876-1955), V.V. Struve (1889-1965), S.D. Skazkin (1890-1973) ), E.A. Kosminsky (1886-1959), M.V. Nechkina (1901-1985), I.D. Kovalchenko (1928-1995), M.N. Tikhomirov (1893-1965), S.V. Bakhrushin (1882-1950). Modern domestic historians: V.V. Alekseev, L.G. Aronov, A.S. Barsenkov, S.A. Belyaev, S.V.Volkov, A.Ya.Gurevich, V.M.Lavrov, S.V.Mironenko, N.N.Pokrovsky, A.D. Pryakhin, Yu.V.Rubtsov, A.N. Sakhzarov, A.V. Chudinov, A.V.Shubin.

I. At the origins of historical science. II. Historical science of the ancient world. III. Historical science in the Middle Ages and Modern times. IV. Historical science in the XX century. V. Formation and development of views on the world. VI. Principles of periodization in history. VII. Stages of human development.

I. At the origins of historical science. Before the invention of writing, knowledge about the past was transmitted orally, from generation to generation. The first written language appeared in the states ancient east in the IV-II millennium BC The first chronicles appeared in China in the 8th century. BC.

II. Historical science of the ancient world. The most famous writers and historians of antiquity: Herodotus (V century BC) - "General History"; Herodotus (5th century BC) - "General History"; Thucydides (5th century BC); Thucydides (5th century BC); Plutarch (45-127); Plutarch (45-127); Titus Livy (59 BC - 17 AD) - history of Rome in 142 volumes; Titus Livy (59 BC - 17 AD) - history of Rome in 142 volumes; Plato (BC) - "Atlantis". Plato (BC) - "Atlantis".

III. Historical science in the Middle Ages and Modern times. In the early Middle Ages in Europe, religion had a decisive influence on the state of historical knowledge. In the XVI-XVII centuries. in Europe, a single system of chronology is being created - from the Nativity of Christ. Absolutism is an unlimited monarchy, a form of government in which the supreme power belongs entirely to the monarch. Under absolutism, the state reaches the highest degree of centralization, an extensive bureaucratic administrative apparatus, a standing army and police are created. The activities of estate representation bodies, as a rule, cease.

XVIII - the beginning of the Enlightenment. In the 19th century, the problem of searching for the laws of historical development and its driving forces came to the center of attention of the humanities and social sciences. Requirements are defined: observance of the principle of historicism, or concrete historical analysis; observance of the principle of historicism, or concrete historical analysis; observance of the principle of objectivity. observance of the principle of objectivity.

V. Formation and development of views on the world. I. The Christian concept of historical development (Avrelius Augustine) is based on religious ideas. II. The idea of ​​progress (D. Locke, Voltaire, J. J. Rousseau - enlighteners): the driving force of social development is the aspirations of people, and its goal is the realization of their ideals. III. I. Kant is the founder of German philosophy. IV. G. Hegel - the creator of the "national idea". V. Aristotle, Sh. L. De Montesquieu, I. Herder - ideas about the great influence of material factors on the life of society, its culture and traditions.

Marxist theory. K. Marx, F. Engels. Considered the development of mankind as a natural-historical process. Its driving force was considered to be the struggle between classes - groups of people that differ in their attitude to ownership of the means of production, their place in the system of relations they enter into in the process of production of material goods, their distribution and exchange, i.e. it is a struggle between the haves and the have-nots.

Progress was associated with a successive change of formations. They differed in terms of the prevailing forms of ownership of the means of production; the social structure of society and the nature of relations between its constituent classes; level of development of productive forces. The spiritual sphere plays a secondary role. The role of the individual in history and the significance of random factors were not rejected either.

Various theories of historical development Marxist concept of history (K. Marx, F. Engels) Theory of local civilizations (N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, L. Gumilyov) Theories of world civilizational development (W. Rostow, D. Bell , J. Galbraith, E. Toffler)

Directions in the theory of civilization Stage approach Civilization- single process, passing through certain stages: Pre-industrial (IV millennium BC-80s of the XVIII century) Industrial Post-industrial Local approach Local civilization is a large socio-cultural community that exists for a long time, has relatively stable spatial boundaries, specific forms of economic, political , spiritual life., individual. path of historical development

VI. Principles of periodization of history. 1. The principle of changing forms economic activity, the development of material culture. Periodization of history according to L. Morgan and J. Condorcet Savagery (gathering, hunting) Savagery (gathering, hunting) Barbarism (agriculture, cattle breeding) Barbarism (agriculture, cattle breeding) Civilization (writing, metal working Civilization (writing, metal working)

2. Marxist concept of history. 2. Marxist concept of history. Conflicting classes FORMATIONS Stages of development Classless society Communist Capitalist Feudal Slave-owning Absence of classes Primitive-communal system Slave-owners Slaves Feudal lords Peasants Bourgeoisie Proletariat PROGRESSPROGRESS

VII. Stages of human development. The primitive era is 1.5 million years ago. About a thousand years ago, the formation of a modern type of man takes place, tools of labor are gradually improved, the transition from hunting, fishing to agriculture and cattle breeding begins. The primitive era is 1.5 million years ago. About a thousand years ago, the formation of a modern type of man takes place, tools of labor are gradually improved, the transition from hunting, fishing to agriculture and cattle breeding begins. Ancient world - IV-III millennium BC This era begins with the emergence of the first states. Society is split into rulers and ruled, haves and have-nots, slavery is spreading widely. Ancient world - IV-III millennium BC This era begins with the emergence of the first states. Society is split into rulers and ruled, haves and have-nots, slavery is spreading widely.

The era of the Middle Ages (V-XVII centuries): The first period (V-XI centuries) - the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the establishment of the estate system in Europe, the predominance of subsistence farming, the special role of religion. The first period (V-XI centuries) - the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the establishment of the class system in Europe, the predominance of subsistence farming, the special role of religion. The second period (mid-XI-end of the XV centuries) - the formation of large feudal states, the growth of the importance of cities, which become centers of crafts, trade, spiritual life, which is becoming more and more secular. The second period (mid-XI-end of the XV centuries) - the formation of large feudal states, the growth of the importance of cities, which become centers of crafts, trade, spiritual life, which is becoming more and more secular. The third period (XVI-XVII centuries) - the beginning of the decomposition of the feudal system, the creation of colonial empires begins, commodity-money relations develop rapidly, manufacturing production is widely distributed, the social structure of society becomes more complicated, absolutist monarchies arise. The third period (XVI-XVII centuries) - the beginning of the decomposition of the feudal system, the creation of colonial empires begins, commodity-money relations develop rapidly, manufacturing production is widely distributed, the social structure of society becomes more complicated, absolutist monarchies arise.

The era of the New Age: The first period (from the middle of the XVII century) - revolutions in Europe, the Age of Enlightenment. The first period (from the middle of the XVII century) - revolutions in Europe, the Age of Enlightenment. The second period - comes after the Great french revolution(), the beginning of the industrial revolution, the formation of capitalist relations, the rapid growth of colonial empires, the development of the world market, the emergence of a system of international division of labor, the ideologies of nationalism and national interest are being established in states. The second period - comes after the French Revolution (), the beginning of the industrial revolution, the formation of capitalist relations, the rapid growth of colonial empires, the development of the world market, the emergence of a system of international division of labor, the ideologies of nationalism and national interest are being established in states. The third period (late 19th - early 20th centuries) - world crises of overproduction, the struggle for the redivision of the world begins and intensifies. The third period (late 19th - early 20th centuries) - world crises of overproduction, the struggle for the redivision of the world begins and intensifies. The era of modern times. The era of modern times.

Final questions for the lesson: What are the main stages in the development of historical knowledge? What are the main stages in the development of historical knowledge? What are the views on the world that existed at certain stages of development world history? What are the views on the world that existed at certain stages in the development of world history? Define the term "periodization". Define the term "periodization". What are the basic principles of periodization? What are the basic principles of periodization? How many stages of human development? How many stages of human development?

An important stage in the development of historical knowledge was ancient science. It found its highest manifestation in the writings of the ancient Greek historians Herodotus, nicknamed the "father of history", and Thucydides, who sought to penetrate into the causal relationship of events and tried to separate reliable facts from fiction. The writings of these historians are no longer fragmentary, but a logically sequential narrative. In the writings of Polybius, for the first time, the concept of world (general) history appears. The works of Titus Livy, Tacitus, Plutarch, Appian and others were also of significant importance in ancient historiography. The Chinese scholar Sima Qian (II-I centuries BC) created the first consolidated history of China in which the chronological principle of historical narration was combined with the thematic breakdown of the material: music, ceremonies, economics, calendars, biographies.

Golden age

The ancient Greeks tried to understand the phenomena occurring in society through fantasies and delusions. Comparison of the simple equality of the era of hunters and gatherers with the division of people into slaves and slave owners that appeared in antiquity led to the emergence in oral folk art of the myth of "golden age". According to this myth, history moves in circles. The following arguments were cited as reasons: “God decided so” or “such is the command of nature”, etc. At the same time, they also touched upon the question of sense of history.

The first stage in the development historical thought of modern times there was a humanistic historiography of the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). Its most prominent representatives (Italian humanists N. Machiavelli, F. Guicciardini, J. Bodin, etc.) tried to comprehend the laws of historical development, to link together the facts contained in the works of ancient historians and medieval chroniclers . Such a secular approach to history was a huge step in the development of historical science. Of exceptional importance for science was the spread of book printing (mid-15th century). Humanist historians laid the foundation for systematic criticism (Italian humanists Flavio Biondo, Lorenzo Valla and others). The foundations were laid (by the Italian humanist L. Bruni) of a new periodization of history (its division into ancient, middle, new).

17th century

In the 17th century Dutch and English thinkers (G. Grotius, T. Hobbes) attempted to create a theory of social development based on the principles of natural law. The Italian scientist G. Vico put forward a cyclic concept of philosophy. His most important ideas were the existence of objective laws of history, the cyclical development of nations, the integrity and originality of cultures.

Age of Enlightenment (18th century)

French enlighteners of the 18th century. they looked for the laws of history in the interaction of society with nature, mechanically likening the laws of history to the laws of nature. They also put forward the idea of ​​creating a universal history of mankind, based on the recognition of the unity of the destinies of the human race (Voltaire), the theory of the natural state, which claimed that at the beginning of historical development, man was only a part of nature (J.-J. Rousseau), the idea of ​​continuous progress in history (J. Condorcet and others), developed the doctrine of the influence on community development natural geographic environment (C.-L. Montesquieu). Prominent representatives of English historical science (E. Gibbon, W. Robertson) gave a detailed coverage of important periods in European history. Great importance had philosophical and historical concepts of the German enlighteners, especially I.-G. Herder.

Linearity of history

If until the 18th century the Christian point of view on history reigned supreme, then the European thinkers of the following centuries of modern times preferred progress and the natural laws of history, and also recognized the subordination of the fate of all peoples to a single law of historical development. Italian J. Vico, French C. Montesquieu And J. Condorcet, Germans I. Kant, I. Herder, G. Hegel and others believed that progress is expressed in the development of science, art, religion, philosophy, law, etc. Ultimately, all of them were close to the idea of ​​socio-historical progress.

K. Marx was also a supporter of linear social progress. According to his theory, progress is ultimately based on the development of the productive forces. However, in this understanding of progress, the place of man in history is not adequately reflected.

19th century

Historians of the 19th century, starting with Leopold von Ranke, developed classical criteria for the scientific nature of historical knowledge, developed the principle of critical concrete historical analysis. They proved the need to rely on all available primary sources, offered a variety of reconstructions of the historical past, which even today cannot be ignored.

The cycle of history

By the end of the 20th century, the understanding of history in the form of linear development, or rather its absolutization, proved its complete failure. There was a renewed interest in the views that existed in antiquity, in particular, in the movement of history in a circle. Naturally, these views were presented in a new, enriched form.

Philosophers of the East and West considered the course of events of history in a certain sequence, repetition and a certain rhythm. Based on these views, the idea of ​​periodicity was gradually formed, i.e. cyclicity in the development of society. As emphasizes major historian modernity F. Braudel, historical phenomena are characterized by periodicity. In this case, the time from the beginning of the processes to their end is taken into account.

France

French historians M. Blok and L. Febvre paid great attention to socio-economic history. who founded the historical journal "Annals". Around this journal, a historical school has developed (F. Braudel, E. Labrousse, J. Le Goff, etc.), which has a huge impact on the development of historical science up to the present, thanks primarily to a systematic approach to the study of historical realities.

Russia

Russian historians and philologists (N. I. Konrad, S. S. Averintsev, M. L. Gasparov, M. M. Bakhtin, A. F. Losev, A. Ya. Gurevich, Z. V. Udaltsova and others) in their research enriched world science with a comparative analysis of the cultures and civilizations of the West and East, from the primitive era to the present.

History as a science is being developed in Russia by scientists from various scientific communities. At the Institute of World History of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), from the standpoint of multifactoriality, they study theoretical problems all periods of world history, all civilizations, including the problem of the role and place of Russia in the world historical process.

One of the oldest centers of historical research in Russia is the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where more than 500 historians work, several hundred books are published annually. scientific papers on all the problems of the countries of the East.

Comprehensive study of history Slavic peoples and states are engaged in the Institute of Slavic and Balkan studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Speeches by the employees of this research institute are heard at the annual Days of Slavic Literature and Culture, are published in the Slavonic Almanac, the journal Slavic Studies.