N.L. Rumyantseva

Factors and patterns of human development. Part 1. Patterns of human development

Introduction

We are experiencing a global crisis of civilization, not only financial and economic, but in general moral decay and physical extinction (according to UN statistics, the population Western Europe not reproduced except for Muslim Albania) of the people of an advanced civilization. Is it possible to rely on any concept of Man that would resist decay? There are many such concepts, however, and at present the task remains "to reveal the dialectics of the social and biological in man" (Frolov I.T.)

The task of the proposed concept of Man is to reveal this dialectic, to understand the process of ascent to a harmonious Man.

When constructing the concept of human development, we will rely on the categories of system analysis of activity, denoted as initial data and method. The initial concepts that will be further developed are the concepts of: I. Pavlov, who designated its preservation as the goal of life; Marx, who revealed the essence of social relations under capitalism as a basic external factor in human development; Vygotsky L.S., and his followers, who developed the fundamental principle of the primacy of the sociocultural factor in human development; Promptov, Lorenz, Fet and other scientists who substantiated the development of the biological factor in the socio-cultural environment in a developing person; Zinchenko V.P., who outlined the contours of the laws of human development.

The research method is system-dialectical, which means, firstly, that a person is an element of the system-society in which he is socialized, but, in turn, is himself a system. And, secondly, this method means considering a person as an element of the system and as a representative of the Homo sapiens species, in development (ontogeny and phylogeny), and, at the same time, the development of the factors themselves that determine human development is analyzed.

To highlight the basic factors and patterns of human development, let us turn to the history of the human race. It has two stages: the stage of biological evolution and the stage of social evolution, when an unnatural component of human life activity began to take shape - culture (including religion). Two aspects of human development are derived from this - biological and socio-cultural. Culture, its values ​​have long been the basis for organizing the social or socio-cultural life of people, however, in recent centuries, the ideology of society, its values, have begun to diverge from cultural values, which makes us separate the social aspect from the cultural one. We will build the concept on the synthesis of these aspects of considering a person: how species(growth and maturation); as a social being (socialization); as a bearer of culture (mastering and reproducing its values). But these principles are not independent, and already the biological element contains cultural memory as a deposit, nothing more.

The main type of biological principle is a material body with some inherited properties (energy, temperament, illness, inclinations). Its maintenance and development is carried out according to the laws of nature, but human culture (body culture) also exerts its influence within the framework of these laws. Another type of biological principle is instincts that are developed by society into bio-complexes of life preservation, bio-complexes form needs, needs cause desires or will, will causes actions. The third type of biological inclinations is the inclination of thinking, which is developed by society into thinking. The fourth type is ethical inclinations (“collective unconscious” according to Jung, “spiritual code of culture”, “cultural code”, “cultural-spiritual code”, etc. in different conceptual systems), which are developed by the culture of society along with developing thinking, including the individual in one or another ethical system.

Development factors can be divided into internal and external, initial and emerging. From the two initial aspects of the consideration of a person, three grew, and then from the three named principles of a person, six internal factors of his development were formed: the body, instincts - biocomplexes, thinking, ethical system, will, needs. The initial internal factors are the physical body with biological inclinations. External factors - cultural (ethical) and social (values ​​of the ideology of society) and the requirements of society arising from them. The dialectic of the interaction of external and internal factors transforms socially significant internal biological factors into bio-cultural-social ones, and mastered and appropriated external (ethical system) - into internal ones. In addition to the body, developing thinking, the will striving for freedom, the biocomplex of life preservation, which is formed on the basis of instincts in the socio-cultural environment, the ethical system mastered and appropriated, and the needs generated by all these factors, become such developing internal factors of human development. In this concept, culture means the spiritual culture of the society, being included in which a person is cultivated. But a broader concept of culture also includes bodily culture, joining which a person strengthens his health.

Patterns of human development

First stage (biological)

Following I. Pavlov, let's introduce the concept of "life-saving instinct" to denote a natural means of achieving the goal of life designated by him - its preservation. The preservation of the life of the animal world is based on the instinct for the preservation of life. What is this instinct? The instinct to preserve life (population) in an animal (according to the studies of Lorentz, Efroimson, Kropotkin) includes the following main types: self-preservation, reproduction, and the instinct of society or collectivity. In humans, instinct as the ability to behave that preserves life dies off, turning into a deposit, being replaced by new means of preserving life - conscious labor activity and culture. The same types of instinct for the preservation of life as in an animal, but only as a deposit, can also be distinguished in humans: self-preservation, preservation of the family and preservation of the collective. The latter can be broken down into several levels, from a group of friends, countrymen, etc. up to the preservation of the people of their country, humanity, all living things. Together they form a complete instinct for the preservation of life. In the "developed" countries with endangered populations, the instinct of publicity or the preservation of collectives of different levels as a deposit has long been "forgotten" (K. Jung) and is not developing, now before our eyes it is not developing as a deposit and the instinct of preserving the family. And there is a danger of their complete extinction. The situation is similar in the animal world - once needed, but the organ-function that has become unclaimed gradually dies off.

In a developing person, the instinct to preserve life, its named types, develop (with the exception of the infantile period) into a biocomplex of preserving life and its corresponding types, if there is a favorable socio-cultural environment, as a grain sprouts in a favorable environment or (in the cybernetic terminology of A.I. Fet) how open programs are supplemented by subprograms and only then “work”, forming needs, and needs, in turn, desires. Desires I will also call will. The will strives for freedom - this is its main property, its law. But we note here that the biocomplex of preserving human life is not the only source of his need. Therefore, human behavior cannot be unequivocally associated with this biocomplex.

The man was born. He, his behavior, his attitude to the world is determined by the instinct of self-preservation and nothing else. In a born person, the will naturally leads to action, i.e. free, because the will itself is still very primitive and is determined by the instinct of self-preservation and, as a result, does not evoke external opposition. The remaining instincts (except for self-preservation) are present in a born person as inclinations or open programs, potentially, as unformed sources of need, which will gradually form into the corresponding biocomplexes, and how they will form depends both on the genetic program and on the environment, in which they will fall. In a born person, only the first kind of instinct works as a need, associated with the simple biological functioning of his body, and love for relatives develops at first precisely as love for oneself, i.e. the need for them in the child is the need for means of self-preservation, which they are for him until he has mastered these means himself. This stage can be called not just biological, but "vegetative" ("vegetative soul" according to Aristotle). Communication with the world at this stage is emotional and sensual, thinking is not developed, there are no ethical categories. Already at this stage, the first crisis of development arises - the crisis of the 1st year, described by L.S. Vygotsky. Evolution is biological. Biological development takes a person to the next stage.

Second stage (communicative)

Further, a person, developing, learns to control his body and this gives him greater freedom of action, begins to master the space. A person connects to the culture of society, the process of deobjectification begins; he begins to master the language and, along with it, knowledge through activity and communication with the environment. The factors identified in our approach at this stage develop as follows: thinking develops along with language acquisition; in a collectivist environment, a biocomplex of collectivity begins to form (according to J. Bruner). It is transformed (according to Vygotsky, Fet, etc.) into a biocomplex and the instinct of self-preservation under the influence of the environment and external lack of freedom, this change depends on what kind of environment it is. Communication with the environment, in addition to the intellectual influence that develops thinking, is also the process of organically including a person in this environment and subordinating him to its laws. A person becomes an element of the system and at the same time loses free will because of the connections by which he is included in the system. He cannot now always act as he wants, because. its inclusion in the system is regulated by the relation “possible-impossible” or “good-bad”), passing (according to Piaget) the pre-moral stage, then the stage of heteronomous morality. The socialization of the individual begins, which is still very limited by the framework of the family or children's institution. Here arise "external requirements" that make the will non-free (external non-freedom).

This “impossible” will accompany a person for a very long time, and often throughout his life, like those laws or the necessity that his environment forces him to obey from the outside.

The subordination of a person to this “impossible” is not passive, but active, even active-aggressive. Here the basic law of the will is manifested and will continue to operate all the time - its desire for self-determination or freedom. Psychologists (Erikson, Vygotsky, Bozhovich, and others) note periods of activity in childhood (and then in adolescence and youth) that emerge from external restrictions and lead to crises of this period.

How intellectual development, and organic inclusion in the system, i.e. into society is carried out through the ethical norms of this society, through the main ethical categories, “good - bad”. So far, at stage 2, the ethical system of a person has not yet been formed, and for him “good - bad” is still almost equivalent to “possible - impossible”, i.e. just a less categorical formulation of the same relationship through which he is included in society.

External demands and the “external unfreedom” of the will caused by them prevent the will from realizing its constant desire for freedom. And already at this stage, the desire to “throw off” unfreedom leads to a backlash from the environment, bringing resentment, disappointment, grief and forcing a person to look for a way out of this contradiction. One of them is split. This bifurcation manifests itself when the child "lies", and in such a way that it is not detected. The need for socialization takes him to the next stage.

Third stage (existential)

A person grows and joins various teams - educational, then labor. This inclusion takes him to the next stage of development. This stage is the stage of mastering the ethical system. The environment gradually develops a system of its moral values ​​in front of a person, and this result of the centuries-old development of culture is passively imprinted in the human mind through the categories of "good - evil". For a still dialectically undeveloped mind, any ethical system created by centuries of social development looks logical, consistent and provides answers to those numerous “whys” that gradually form a person’s self-consciousness. In Kohlberg's classification, this is the conventional level of morality. In parallel with this process, and at first glance, independently of it, biocomplex needs are formed: as independence develops, mother and other relatives are alienated from his “I” - love for relatives is separated from love for oneself and becomes its denial; the simplest groups of “friends” may arise, love for friends (or friendship) may arise, incl. to members of the other sex.

The degree of formation of one or another type of biocomplex need at this level is determined by the environment in which a person lives, those social relations that prevail in society and the culture in which he is included. By environment, I mean, first of all, the family and the immediate environment - the provision of the family with the basic means of existence, action and interaction of the people around. The more materially difficult it is for a family to live, the more it needs help, the unity of its members with each other and with other people, the more actively the biocomplex of preserving collectives and the corresponding needs are formed. Similarly, those manifestations of mutual assistance that a person experiences and observes also affect.

All these biocomplexes, being species of one biocomplex of life preservation, are in constant struggle in the human soul, denying

each other. In the same struggle, the concept of good develops, passing through denials. These factors form a person still unconsciously, unreflected.

Inclusion in collectives requires from a person already a larger-scale socialization, more and more limiting his freedom of will. The law of the desire of the will for freedom also explains the desire of a person to get out of the power of external unfreedom in that part of his activity that is limited by it. This protest can result in dramatic events that are hard to endure and push a person to move to the next stage of development - reflexive. Another continuation is also possible - exactly the one that the individualistic ideology suggests, i.e. an ideology based on the priority of private interests over the general interests of society: bifurcate. It helps to maintain one's free will when "there are no witnesses" and to learn to play roles when a person interacts with other people. Moreover, it is precisely on the priority of the biocomplex of self-preservation (and, more broadly, individualism as a priority of individual interests) that the ideology of an individualistic society is based, supporting it as the basis for success, albeit under the “cover” of role-playing behavior dictated by legal norms and moral postulates, in particular, Christianity. If a person does this well, then this means his successful “socialization”. This bifurcation begins at the second stage and manifests itself when the child is "lying". Such a state, as a rule, does not stimulate the further development of a person, and accepted in society economic system forms an implicit ethical, mixing good and evil with wealth-poverty, or power-subordination, or strength-weakness, does not attach importance to distinguishing between lies and truth (more precisely, it replaces the truth with a lie, a simulacrum).

It is the third stage that is typical for an active personality in a modern individualistic society, and even the third stage, due to its “inhibiting” effect on active activity, is only partially passed, i.e. to the extent that the struggle of biocomplexes does not prevent the individual from acting actively, does not obscure the hierarchy of goals learned and built in the process of socialization (money, success, power, self-realization, etc.).

The performance of "roles" at this stage is regulated by the categories of "good-evil" formed in society. In an individualistic society, they are replaced by laws designed to reflect "good" and prevent "evil", understood in the individualistic paradigm. So far, conscience is almost not disturbing, truth is almost merged with lies, almost indistinguishable (because it is not reflected), “selfhood” is not open, or rather, not built. The person splits in two, losing integrity. Collectivist society, i.e. a society with the priority of common interests over private ones in ideology, through social relations and familiarization with a collectivist culture, pushes a person to another way out, to search for integrity, to the next stage. IN modern Russia an individualist ideology was adopted, and the culture that still remains is collectivist. Therefore, in it, the socio-cultural evolution of a person at this stage bifurcates: the social one pushes a person onto one path, and the cultural one - onto another. It is this contradiction in the developing person for Russia that is the main reason for its unstable state and the main problem that needs to be resolved.

Fourth stage (reflexive)

A person, trying to remove external lack of freedom and contradictions with the outside world, experiencing them, begins to realize himself as an imperfect being. The stage of self-knowledge and self-improvement begins. This is a long way of reflection, a dialectical way of becoming a spiritually developed personality, the formation of one's worldview, first of all, one's own ethical system. This is the way of denying the ethical values ​​previously imprinted in the consciousness, then affirming, etc. As a result, the spiral of denials twists into some synthesized, relatively stable worldview. This stability is determined by the degree of awareness of the rules of life of human society, expressed in "external requirements". The more humane the society in which he lives (we define a humane society as “a society that contributes to the satisfaction of vital needs and the elevation of a person), the more a person is freed from the pressure of external requirements, translating them into his own rules of life. In the ideal case, “external lack of freedom” is completely removed for a person, external requirements now do not exist for him, because. his own demands on himself replace them entirely. However, there are no ideal societies, or at least they are very rare. They are approached by a Christian or other religious community, but "worldly" life takes place in other groups.

External requirements sometimes prescribe behavior to a person that contradicts his morality, the ethical system he has formed. In these cases, the behavior of a person at level 4 differs from behavior at level 3, when he obeys the requirements of society. Now he does not obey them, thereby showing his “external freedom”, but obeys the ethical law achieved within himself (post-conventional ethical level according to Kohlberg). This disobedience can turn into a conflict between a person and society up to death. It is at the cost of the death of one person that possible change the laws of the life of society and its progress towards the humane. These are the results of the death of Socrates, Jesus Christ, J. Bruno and others. Life is at stake for the rebirth of mankind. Pioneers always suffer if they don't die, and geniuses are more often appreciated by society after death than during life. Simultaneously with the awareness of social laws, there is an awareness of the laws of human life - it is stimulated by those experiences, or rather the suffering that a person experiences when communicating with people, the empathy that he feels when he joins high art.

The developing ethical categories of "good - evil" remain the main factor of development at this level. However, at this level, another development factor is the development of reflection and, along with it, an understanding of oneself, one's imperfection and other people, gradually shifting a person from an egocentric position.

The gradual removal of external lack of freedom at this level turns into “internal lack of freedom” for a person. It should be noted here that we denote by this term the lack of freedom of will-desire from the mind, while in psychology this term has a different meaning. For example, Leontiev D.A. inner lack of freedom - "in a lack of understanding of the internal and external forces acting on a person, in the lack of orientation in life, in indecision" . This difference is due to a different concept of will in this study, will-feeling, and not will-mind. In this text, inner lack of freedom means that between the will and its implementation, a person himself puts an obstacle for himself, or, more precisely, a “censor” in accordance with his ethical system. Speaking about this stage of human development, L.I. Bozhovich characterizes it this way: “in younger ages deprivation of newly arisen needs is associated mainly with external obstacles (prohibitions of adults, etc.); in a crisis adolescence Internal factors also play an equally important role: the prohibitions imposed by the teenager on himself, previously formed psychological neoplasms (habits, character traits, etc.), which often prevent the teenager from achieving the desired and, above all, his own chosen model. And she sees the main reason for this new contradiction in a person not in external conditions, and not in puberty (as many psychologists believe), but in the development of reflection, in “the appearance in a teenager of the ability to know himself as a person who possesses it, in different from all other people, inherent qualities.

A person is now in a constant struggle with himself, this eternal contradiction of “mind and heart” is sometimes so strong that if a way out of it to the next 5th stage is not found, then a way out can only be found in self-negation, i.e. suicide. In particular, because of the intolerance of suffering associated with the aggravation of internal contradictions, psychologists strive to free their “wards” or pupils from this level, pointing out the undesirability of “too much attention paid by a person to his Self”. Freud and his followers came especially close to solving the question of how to free a person from this internal struggle, who prepared, so to speak, the “scientific foundation” of the sexual revolution that erupted after his appearance. But only after overcoming this stage, having survived this internal struggle, a person further comes to an understanding of the moral law of human life and human society.

A person can at this stage act in accordance with his will - against his mind - or in accordance with his mind - but against his will - in any case, the contradiction within him with an active mind is not resolved, but aggravated, because. the more actively the mind struggles with the will, i.e. asserts its right to determine human behavior, the more actively the same right defends the will as its own law - the desire for freedom. This stage thus leads (with a strong mind) to the denial of human nature, which has not yet been freed from the predominance of the biocomplex of self-preservation and self-affirmation. But the collectivist ideology, culture, environment, contributing to the removal of this predominance, and with it internal contradictions, pushes a person to the next stage.

Fifth stage (spiritual)

The next stage of development comes along with the formation of a complete bio-complex of life preservation, in which the bio-complex of collectivity takes its place (that is, activated when something threatens the collective of one or another level). This process directly depends on the influence of the environment and is ultimately determined by the ideology and culture of society, and through them by the production relations and ethical systems embedded in the ideology. Ethical systems entered into a person and with their participation his own formed by him - this is the main force that forms and implements a complete bio-complex of life preservation and contributes to finding a measure of each of its types.

At the same time, self-knowledge continues, but not just its nature, but the knowledge of its movement, i.e. reflection of the passed stages at the same time with a completely new "measurement", a new tool of knowledge. Such reflection is stimulated by the aggravation of internal contradictions that arose at stage 4 and the desire to remove the internal lack of freedom created by the mind.

Now the instrument of man's knowledge of himself is the category "natural (true) - unnatural (false)". These categories are a denial of the ethical categories of "good - evil", on which the human ethical system was built at previous stages, and thus its denial. Now it is realized that a rational and internally not free person was often forced (or sometimes, depending on the degree of formation of the biocomplex) to lie, communicating with the outside world, “playing a role”, denying his “sinful” nature, i.e. their "lower" biocomplexes, first of all, self-preservation. Moreover, at the 4th stage, the mind took over the management of those needs of its own body that are not related to communication (P.Ya. Galperin called them “organic”), believing that, having knowledge, he better understands what this body needs , (later a person will understand the imperfection of knowledge and reason), "curbing" his "unreasonable" desires (and he was right to the extent that he helped the body to distinguish pleasures from true needs).

At stage 5, the mind recognizes the “true”, which has become “natural”, as the main ethical value, thus, it itself removes its violence against human nature, now a new nature, as an inevitable source of lies. Spiritual evolution.

The moment of onset of the 5th stage is determined by the formation and implementation of a complete bio-complex of life preservation as a source of needs, finding a measure of each of its types: it is now that there is no need for their control and mind control, and now they can freely manifest themselves. Now the eternal struggle of "mind and heart" finds its solution. In the Gospel of John we find the exact description of this spiritual stage: "and you will know the truth, and the truth will make you free." If at the third stage, a person, obeying the demand of society, gave way to an old woman in a transport, and at the fourth stage, he gave way, obeying the demand of reason and conscience, now he gives in, fulfilling his own desire to give in, feeling compassion for the weak, a desire to help a weak person, coinciding with already unnecessary requirements of the mind. Now a person achieves inner harmony: each time, one of the biocomplexes that is threatened by something turns on or dominates; love for a child pushes for self-sacrifice for his sake; love for the Motherland, if something threatens it, pushes for behavior called “feat” or “heroism”. Only here, at stage 5, a new natural "I" is formed in harmony with all types of the biocomplex of life preservation. At this stage, the need to have gives way to the need to give. Reason finds (although it can find it even earlier), finally, the law of human life and human society. We find this law in I. Pavlov, T. De Chardin, V. Vernadsky, N. Moiseev and others - the law of the preservation of life of Homo sapiens. Various philosophers have looked for it in different forms: for Kant it is “act so that your rule has the force of a universal law”, for A. Schweitzer it is expressed in ethical categories: “good is something that serves to preserve and develop life, evil is that which destroys life or hinders it” . In Christianity, this law is love, and the main commandment is “love your neighbor”, but the paradox lies in the fact that you cannot say “love” to a person; after all, this (like any word) is an appeal to the mind, and the mind will fully agree with this and lead a person to a maximum of stage 4. But stage 5 differs from the previous ones in that only here the moral requirements of the mind and the revealed law of nature coincide with a person’s own formed nature, with the realized potential, which gives rise to this love, this respect, this compassion. Here is what P. Kropotkin writes about this: “The words “love for one’s neighbor” incorrectly express the feeling that moves a person when he sacrifices his immediate benefits for the benefit of others ... But the word “altruism”, as well as the word “self-sacrifice”, is incorrect expresses the nature of such actions, since they are good only when they become natural, when they are performed ... by virtue of an irresistible inner impulse.

Here there is a harmony of awareness of oneself as a part of the whole and a sense of collectivism as a feeling of oneself as a part of the whole, generating behavior that contributes to the preservation of this whole. Here Vl. Solovyov’s definition of morality also finds its completion: “morally good actions are those that have as their goal the own good of other subjects, ... and not the exclusive good of the acting subject.”

Here, Hegel's rationalism is overcome in the unity of reason and feeling that he guessed (but not developed), here, finally, K.Kh. Delokarov the question: “In modern conditions, a new rationalism is needed, which includes the experience of comprehending the mistakes of the past and therefore based on the unity of science and morality, reason and feeling. Therefore, it is logical to raise the question of the need to limit its claims to generality and universality. “I think” does not cease to be a fundamental requirement, only “I think” should not displace “I feel”, “I believe”, etc.” .

We find the features of this stage in a different terminology in K. Jung, V. Frankl, A. Langle, A. B. Orlov and other psychologists, however, in these concepts there is no separation of everything following the existential path of human development: reflexive, spiritual, spiritual vision.

Here it is necessary to make such an important clarification: the movement from stage to stage, from level to level does not proceed by replacing one with another, but by layering the next on the previous one. This layering is not carried out immediately, but gradually, as the development progresses, the previous layers decrease and the last one begins to predominate. In this vein, one must also understand “harmony” - it is in the opposition of stages and the gradual displacement of the previous ones by the subsequent ones, which does not happen by itself, but is given by difficult spiritual work - holding the dominant in the central nervous system. Ukhtomsky describes this process in the following way: “The dominant is a fairly stable excitation that flows in the centers at a given moment, acquires the significance of a dominant factor in the work of other centers: it accumulates excitation from individual sources, but inhibits the ability of other centers to respond to impulses that have a direct effect on them. attitude." As A.A. Gagaev explains, “dominants are in biological affinity with heredity and history unique organism, history of culture, populations. It is the formation of a dominant, which enhances the excitation of some centers and inhibits the excitation of others, that changes a person's behavior, his reaction at different stages of development to external signals. Considering harmony as a synthesis of the general, particular, individual, Ukhtomsky believes that “in this process, the selection and formation of new instincts is carried out” (new bio-complexes of life preservation in our terminology). What is this synthesis? Ukhtomsky speaks of following his subconscious nature in discovering the truth, which is identical: 1. to the world, to the whole, 2. to himself, and We, and I. But how can this be achieved? “If you want to maintain the same vector at the same height, you need all the time, I would say, to educate this dominant, carefully groom it, make sure that it does not get overexcited, does not step over a certain value, but everything time corresponded to the current conditions in the centers - on the one hand, and in the environment - on the other.

Sixth Stage (Spiritual Vision)

The harmony achieved at the 5th stage is harmony, one might say, “with oneself”, as achieved free will, but not always harmony with the people around. After all, the surrounding people, not all (or very few) have reached the same level and are also harmonious inside, i.e. follow the same moral principles. Moreover, this harmony with society is not always found, in which, even with a collectivist ideology and culture, but under a government that does not carry this ideology and culture (which happened in the USSR), it may never be found, but, on the contrary, found moral law leads to vigorous activity for the reconstruction of such a society; harmony between man and society is possible only in a humane society in which the condition is fulfilled: “every social organism should be for each of its members not an external boundary of its activity, but a positive support and replenishment” (Vl. Solovyov).

Therefore, there is still a feeling of injustice when a person is not treated the way he treats others. They do not always understand him, sometimes they try to “reveal” his non-existent insidious or mercantile plans, prescribing his behavior to a particular role or self-interest. This can be clearly seen in the assessments of some "commentators" who analyze the behavior or statements of high officials of the country.

A person is still tormented by resentment (although no longer the desire to repay the same and, moreover, not revenge), especially on the closest people. A person does not always understand others, he cannot always move to the position of another. Therefore, continuing reflection, experiencing one's grievances and misunderstandings takes him to the next, 6th stage. At this stage, a new moral law operates, which is the dialectical completion of the completed turn of the spiral; “true goodness” is recognized as the main moral value. What does this mean? After all, good was a moral criterion before. But from the original, subjective good to true good is a very long way. Disappointment and resentment await a person on this path, but only after passing through them, a person leaves the closed space of egocentrism into an open one - polycentrism, learns to distinguish and do true good, learns to understand another person. The criteria for singling out true goodness can be divided into 2 groups: 1st - refers to oneself, 2nd - to others.

The criteria of the 1st group include the development of moral foundations found at the 5th stage. Now the imperative “do not do to another what you do not wish to yourself” is not enough. he does not tell, but what to do? After all, it is not always good for another person what is good for you. The desire to do good, sometimes mutual, leads to disharmony with others, up to own victim- but from my point of view. Kindness cannot be imposed on others. A refinement of the above imperative is “do not judge” (a person, but not his deeds or words), “do not offend” (but at the same time, if you do not agree with the judgments - do not agree, argue, if it makes sense, if you do not approve of the act - do not approve, etc.), "be tolerant", etc. (These clarifications can be formed at the previous stages as well). But "true goodness" is not tolerance or compromise (as at the stage of contract legal orientation in Kohlberg), but benevolent complicity, assistance.

Criteria of the 2nd group, i.e. true goodness in the surrounding world is also formed gradually. The simplest is trust in the words of a person.

This criterion already made it possible to distinguish between the goals of people and support some and not support others. But in modern world information wars and "double standards" (lies), it usually does not work. The next criterion is "believe not words, but deeds." With this criterion, the circle of people whom a person trusts is significantly reduced. But still, here, too, the criterion does not go beyond the scope of the observed, i.e. phenomena.

The next criterion is the correspondence of not only words, but also deeds to thoughts. Separate "good deeds" (for example, a gift for the holiday) do not yet indicate good intentions. And, finally, the last criterion is the correspondence of affairs not only to a conscious decision, but to one's own need for free will. This is how the “relative” truth of goodness moves and develops. The question arises, how can one find out what deeds or actions correspond to? This can only be judged by observing a person in different circumstances, comparing different deeds or actions, and the longer the observations and the more extreme conditions in which actions are performed - the more reliable the conclusions can be.

At this stage, love, which accompanies a person all his life and brings him the highest joy and severe pain, and torment, reaches its harmonious state, turning into voluntary service, but no longer accompanied by insults and not expecting the same answer. A person at this stage cannot be offended. Spiritual evolution.

The development of a person does not end with stage 6, it continues throughout life and consists in maintaining the found thin border of the considered opposites and in increasing the scale of reality that he is able to embrace. Thus, the development of a person is, in essence, a way of completing the initial biological inclination with a sociocultural one, i.e. the formation of the socio-cultural nature of man.

Table 1, moving from stage to stage, shows the pattern of human development as a result of the dialectical development of the main factors:

• non-reflexive thinking - reflective thinking;
• free unconscious will - externally not free will - internally not free will - free conscious will;
• mastered ethical categories: good - truth - true good;
• instinct as a deposit - consciousness - a "complete" bio-complex of life preservation.

Table 1

The main question of philosophy - the primacy of matter or consciousness, is dialectically resolved in this concept in a developing person by the following triad: from the primacy of matter (i.e., the instinct of self-preservation and free will) at the biological stage to the primacy of consciousness (suppression of the biocomplex of self-preservation by consciousness and internally non-free will) at the reflexive stage and again to the primacy of matter, but already spiritualized (formed as a source of needs, a complete bio-complex of life preservation and free conscious will) at the spiritual stage.

All these chains are coils of a dialectical spiral into which any development is embedded.

How is the proposed concept related to known system concepts? Let's compare the proposed concept with the most fundamental concept of human development - Hegel's concept.

With a difference in the conceptual apparatus, the “genuine, moral way of thinking” of individuals, which is “knowledge of substance and the identity of all their interests with the whole,” Hegel coincides with the content of the concept of “collectivism” at a reflexive level, defined as awareness of oneself as part of a whole, generating behavior contributing to the preservation of this whole.

The main content of both concepts of human development is the promotion of a person to a moral state with free will and reflective thinking, which is equally understood in both concepts as: True freedom as morality is that the will has as its goals non-subjective, i.e. selfish, interests, but universal content. It would be absurd to exclude thinking from morality…”. The will of a natural, living person, striving for freedom, in the concept of Hegel receives this freedom (already, however, not a natural, but a rational person) at the final point of development. This coincides with the idea of ​​free will in the concept developed in this paper. This progress consists in the transition of the original egoistic will through its lack of freedom into a rational will and through this rational will, i.e. the will of the mind - to the "feeling soul", to the will of the feeling (sympathizing) and experiencing (empathizing), i.e. again natural man, but with a new, mind-transformed nature.

But the differences are in the patterns of progress towards this state.

The main difference is in the absence of a transcendent spirit in the proposed concept, therefore, there are completely different reasons for ascent, namely: overcoming suffering caused by the desire of the will for freedom, the growth of contradictions of both internal factors, and the clash of internal factors and external ones.

Hegel's mind, the ascent to the absolute determines the development of man. The feelings of this person are vicious and must be overcome by reason. In the concept developed by us, the final point of the turn of development is in the triumph of a new nature, new feelings, coinciding with the requirements of the mind.

For Hegel, duty comes from the absolute idea. In our concept, obligation (non-freedom) comes from “external requirements” at the existential level and from “internal” requirements of reflexive thinking (coinciding with external ones in a humane society) - at the reflexive level. But in any case, not obligation, but the desire to remove it, the desire for free will as its law transfers a person from the existential to the reflective and further to the spiritual level. The duty, however, leads only to “entering into roles”, the fulfillment of which is required of him first by society (“social roles” at the existential level), and then by his own reflective thinking (at the reflective level). And, further, the desire to remove these roles (at the spiritual level) advances a person further, from the spiritual level to the level of spiritual vision. In Hegel, a person is brought only to the reflective level, his development as self-knowledge goes through reflective thinking, which “should be”. Stages when it is not yet formed and a person finds other ways of life in society (mastery of roles) are absent in Hegel. Therefore, we will not find an explanation from him modern man Postmodern. As well as there are no post-reflexive stages - spiritual and spiritual vision. But Hegel's rationalism was rejected.

Bibliography

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Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

Modern ideas about human society are largely based on a systematic approach to its analysis. In a philosophical aspect systems approach means the formation of a systematic view of the world, based on the idea of ​​integrity, complex organization and self-movement of the systems under study. A system is usually understood as a set of its constituent elements that are in stable connections and relationships with each other.

The system has special systemic qualities: the order, organization of the system as a whole is higher than its individual elements. Important system principles are also structural - the ability to describe the system through the establishment of its structure, i.e., the network of connections and relations of the system, the conditionality of the functioning of the elements of the system by the properties of its structure. All these signs correspond to human society, which is a complex system of a higher "organic" type, a supersystem, or a societal system that includes all types of social systems and characterized by structural and functional integrity, stability, balance, openness, dynamism, self-organization, self-reproduction, evolution.

From a systemic point of view, society is a certain set of people interconnected by joint activities to achieve their common goals. In the process of joint activity, diverse hierarchically built relationships are formed between people, which is the structure of society. Society as a system has another important characteristic - integrity, that is, it has properties that cannot be derived from the properties of individual elements. People die, generations change, but society constantly reproduces itself. The mechanism of reproduction presupposes the presence in the structure of society of such particularly stable relations (invariant of the system) that have significant independence in relation to individual elements and even structural links.

Society, like any living system, is an open system that is in a state of continuous exchange with its environment. natural environment, exchange of matter, energy and information. Society has a higher degree of organization than its environment. And in order to preserve itself as an integrity, it must constantly satisfy its needs, primarily the needs of people, who have an objective and at the same time historically changeable character.

The greatest achievement of pre-Marxist sociology was the introduction into science of the concept of "social organism" (O. Comte). The value of such a discovery is undeniable. However, society is not reduced to an organism. More broadly, i.e. not only sociologically, but also philosophically, human society appears as a specific type of objective reality and as a special stage in the cosmic process.

Social life within the framework of Marxism was understood as the highest form of the movement of matter, which arose at a certain stage of its development (self-development) and has its own logic of being. The latter means that, although human society is a living system, it is qualitatively different from other living systems, acts both as an object and as a subject of material reality. At the same time, the objective is not equal to the material, and the subjective is not equal to the ideal.

1. Laws of development of society and their specificity

philosophical materialistic marxism society

1.1 The history of the development of views on the development of society in philosophical thought

In modern sociology, there is such a definition of society: "Society is a historically developing integral system of relations and interactions between people, their communities and organizations, which develops and changes in the process of their joint activities" .

The first and essential feature in this definition is the words "historically developing". What is the development of society?

In the most general sense, development is a process of movement from the lower (simple) to the higher (complex), the main characteristic feature of which is the disappearance of the old and the emergence of the new.

When thinking about the historical process, the following questions arise: is the development of society, that is, history, progress and improvement, or regression and decline? Or, perhaps, it is a periodic or even randomly fluctuating cyclical process in which the epochs of prosperity and decline replace each other, sometimes almost regularly, sometimes completely unsystematically? Or is it the result of the superimposition of all these constituent parts, so that periodic or random fluctuations are superimposed on some unambiguous trend?

At different times there were different views on the development of society. Thus, Aurelius Augustine believed that a certain divine power lies at the basis of the development of society.

Hegel argued that changes in social reality are determined by the Absolute Idea, its self-development.

A. Toynbee, P.A. Sorokin, N.A. Berdyaev recognized the spiritual basis of social development.

The historical process has its own logic and laws, some scientists say: these are objective historical patterns, the unity of world history, progress in the development of society. Others believe that this is not the case - all phenomena and processes are unique and unrepeatable. Therefore, there are no patterns, there is no single world history.

The supporters of the first approach include the German philosopher G. Hegel. Based on previous achievements in the study of the development of society and, in particular, on the theory of social progress, the idea of ​​the unity of the historical process and the diversity of its forms, Hegel put forward and substantiated, however, from the standpoint of objective idealism, a fundamentally new and original concept of history as a natural process. , in which each period and era, no matter how peculiar and unusual they may be, nevertheless, in the aggregate, represent a certain natural step in the development of human society. Hegel's views were very progressive for their time.

1.2 The dialectical-materialistic concept of the development of society

Despite certain correct thoughts expressed by various philosophers in antiquity, the science of society and the laws of its development was not created before Marxism. Ultimately, philosophers in their views on society remained idealists, and their philosophical teachings suffered from a number of significant shortcomings.

The authors of various concepts, at best, considered only the ideological motives of the historical activity of people, without examining what causes them, without capturing the objective regularity in the development of the system of social relations, without seeing the roots of these relations in the level of development of material production. Consequently, they stopped at the surface of phenomena, while the task of science is to penetrate beyond the often deceptive appearance and surface of events into their essence, to discover their determining causes.

Pre-Marxist sociologists saw an abyss between the surrounding nature and society, not seeing and not understanding that a person and, in a certain sense, human society, although specific, are still part of a single material world, and, consequently, the laws of development of society are also objective, despite their specificity.

Only by overcoming shortcomings in the views on the development of society, it was possible to substantiate the scientific, dialectical-materialist understanding of history. This was done by Marx and Engels.

The social concept of Marxism proceeds from the fundamental principle that in society, as in nature, laws function in accordance with which social changes occur. This, of course, does not mean that the activity of an individual and society as a whole is completely determined by these laws. Neither man nor society can change these laws, but it is in their power to know these laws and use the knowledge gained either for the benefit or to the detriment of humanity. The main provisions of these laws were formulated at the dawn of the formation of historical materialism. Their essence lies in the fact that “In the social production of their lives, people enter into certain, necessary, relations independent of their will - production relations that correspond to a certain stage in the development of their material production forces. The totality of these production relations constitutes the economic structure of society, the real basis on which the legal and political superstructure rises and to which certain forms of social consciousness correspond. The mode of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. It is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness. At a certain stage of their development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production, or - which is only the legal expression of the latter - with the property relations within which they have hitherto developed. From the forms of development of the productive forces, these relations are transformed into their fetters. Then comes the era of social revolution. With a change in the economic basis, a revolution takes place more or less quickly in the entire vast superstructure. When considering such upheavals, it is always necessary to distinguish between the material, ascertainable with natural-science precision in the economic conditions of production, from the legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophical, in short, from the ideological forms in which people are aware of this conflict and fight for its solution. How about individual person one cannot judge on the basis of what he thinks of himself, just as one cannot judge such an era of revolution by its consciousness. On the contrary, this consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the existing conflict between social productive forces and production relations. No social formation perishes before all the productive forces have been developed for which it gives sufficient scope, and new higher relations of production never appear before the material conditions for their existence have matured in the womb of the old society itself. Therefore, humanity always sets itself only such tasks that it can solve, since upon closer examination it always turns out that the task itself arises only when the material conditions for its solution are already available, or at least are in the process of becoming.

The Marxist doctrine of society—historical materialism—is the result of the extension of the laws of materialist dialectics to society. So, for example, the dialectical law of the unity and struggle of opposites, which points to the internal source of all development, in relation to society means that the source of its self-development is social contradictions. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa indicates the mechanism of development. The development of productive forces occurs in an evolutionary way (quantitative change), while production and economic relations are replaced by a leap. The leap occurs precisely through revolutions (qualitative change). The law of denial indicates the general direction of development - the denial of the previous socio-economic formation.

In addition, the classics of Marxism discovered a number of sociological laws: the determining role of social being in relation to social consciousness; the priority role of the economic base in relation to the superstructure; correspondence of production relations to the level and nature of the productive forces; progressive change of socio-economic formations; social revolutions; the growing role of the masses in history; elevation of needs, etc. At the same time, feedbacks act everywhere, and therefore the laws are manifested: the relative independence of social consciousness and its active influence on social being; the active role of the superstructure in relation to the basis; the reverse effect of production relations on the productive forces; along with the formational actions of general civilizational processes; functioning of natural-evolutionary self-adjusting processes in the life of society; against the background of the growing role of the people, the increasing importance of its individual subjects, up to personalities, both prominent and ordinary. The emphasis on feedback, civilizational and natural-evolutionary processes is mainly an achievement of modern socio-philosophical thought.

Now the concept of the law of society as a philosophical and sociological category has received wide recognition for designating essential, general, necessary, stable, systemic relations of social life, the formation, functioning and reproduction of which are carried out in the process of human activity.

The laws of society, like the laws of nature, are objective in character; their qualitative difference is that they are the laws of human activity and social relations.

The problem of the laws of society and their use continues to be among the most relevant. However, there are also contradictory situations. Thus, a significant part of political scientists, political economists, sociologists, and philosophers in the West now prefers not to use the concepts of "the law of society" or denies its scientific status. At the same time, many of them professionally analyze essential, necessary, recurring relationships in various spheres of social life (i.e., the actual laws of society) and complete their studies with recommendations not so much of an apologetic nature as those of theoretical and practical value.

P. Samuelson considers as laws repetitive, necessary connections, relations in the economic process of the life of society, problem solver what, how and for whom to produce. J. Keynes, V. Leontiev, J. Galbraith, P. Sorokin, T. Parsons, D. Bell, A. Toffler and others explore the laws of society, analyzing the essential, necessary, repetitive relationships not only in the economic, but also in other spheres public life, while often formulating practical recommendations. G.S. Gurvich believes that sociological laws are an integrative characteristic of the existing combinations of real ensembles, they cannot claim to be universal and unchanged, therefore it is necessary to focus on microsociology, on the study of a person in specific situations of his activity. Society, according to Gurvich, is a product of collective creativity and volitional efforts of people. Society should strive to develop mechanisms that block the growth of negative tendencies in it (centralization, bureaucratization, and technocratization of social life lead to this). Gurvich's ideal is pluralistic democracy, decentralized economic planning, "pluralistic collectivism" on the principles of self-government.

Dialectical-materialist philosophy distinguishes the laws of society according to the degree of coverage of the spheres of public life (social space) and the degree of duration of functioning (social time). In this regard, there are three main groups of laws. These are the most general laws, they cover all the main spheres of society and function throughout human history (for example, the law of conditionality by the method of production of material life of the existence and development of society, the law of interaction of the economic base and superstructure). Further, these are general laws - they function in one or more areas and over a number of historical stages(the law of value, the law of the correspondence of production relations to productive forces, etc.). Finally, these are specific, or private, laws inherent in individual spheres of the life of society and operating within the framework of a historically determined stage of development of society (the law of surplus value, etc.).

It is a mistake to assume that all social laws are open. As conditions change, some laws die out, others arise. For example, the laws of natural exchange were replaced by the laws of commodity-money relations.

Similarities were found between the laws of nature and the laws of society. So, the behavior of an individual particle in physics is described in a probabilistic way, similarly, a sociologist describes the behavior of an individual. The behavior of a large number of particles and people is subject to statistical laws. At the same time, in contrast to the natural, social regularity has specific features. The development of society contains not one, but several possibilities, therefore the task of determining the real possibility, which expresses the dominant trend in development, always remains relevant.

Social relations and forms of culture are more mobile and transient than changes in nature. Peaks and recessions, returns, slowdowns and accelerations of historical movement are natural.

Thus, from the point of view of materialistic philosophy, social laws have a number of specific features.

1. Social relations take the form of public interests, needs, goals, feelings and moods of people, which means that social laws are the laws of not only material, but also spiritual activity.

2. Since society is both an object and a subject, social laws are the laws of human activity. Without human activity, which is genetically primary, there is not and cannot be a social pattern. History is nothing but the activity of a man pursuing his goals. G.V. Plekhanov wrote: “Unfortunately, not everyone is still clear on the absurdity ... of opposing personalities to the laws of social life; activities of people - the internal logic of the forms of their hostel ".

3. Social laws, by the nature of their manifestation, are statistical, i.e. trend laws. Laws of this type function where there are massive random actions, phenomena (stochastic processes). History is "made" in such a way that the end result always comes from the collision of many individual wills, which are ultimately determined by specific life circumstances.

Whatever the course of history, people do it this way: everyone pursues their own, consciously set goals, and the total result of this multitude of aspirations acting in different directions, their resultant is historical events that form the course of history.

4. The specificity of social laws is their historicity. Due to the fact that social evolution proceeds at a faster pace than the evolution of nature, social relations and forms of culture are more fluid than geological periods. That is why utopian projects should not be created, history should not be constructed in its own way, and social laws should not be considered data once and for all. The social organism is extremely dynamic, and its laws make it possible to capture only the general line of development, the trend, and this creates a low probability of establishing strict deadlines for the onset of events.

Social laws reflect the presence of social necessity and the objective course of social life.

The actions of social laws are specified, first of all, by general philosophical categories, which, in relation to society, acquire a social coloring. They are due to the social form of the movement of matter. Such are the categories of "social matter", "social time", "social space", "social contradiction", "social negation", "social revolution", as well as "social being" and "public consciousness". In social philosophy, new pairs of categories arise - “freedom” and “necessity”, “basis” and “superstructure”, “objective conditions” and “subjective factors”, as well as “social formation”, “mode of production”, etc.

The objectivity of the historical process is most clearly manifested in the dependence of society on nature and astrophysical factors, which has always been emphasized by representatives of the philosophy of cosmism.

The criterion for the objectivity of social life, and hence social laws, is the presence of social continuity, since each generation begins with the real foundation that it inherited.

Modern philosophy, using the ideas of synergetics, emphasizes that the action of sociological laws manifests itself gradually, based on one's own forms of education, one's own strengths, abilities, and potentialities. At the same time, in the dynamics of society, the spontaneous-spontaneous beginning is intertwined with the goal-willed beginning, the objective predetermination of processes and states is connected with the subjective aspirations of people. A person gives additional energy to individual conditionings, treats others neutrally, that is, allows them to flow without his intervention, tries to stop third directions of the flow. Understanding the place and role of man in the mechanism of social regularity overcomes simplified ideas about the automaticity of the operation of laws and their unidirectionality.

2. The nature and functions of social contradictions and conflicts

The dialectical materialist concept considers the resolution of social contradictions and conflicts to be the main source of the development of society. What is the concept of "contradiction", "conflict", what is their content and types?

Social contradiction in modern social philosophy and sociology is understood as the interaction of social strata, groups, associated with the discrepancy between their interests and goals. Its nature and essence lies in the fact that in the process of striving to satisfy, realize one's needs, goals and interests, the actions of some social subjects do not correspond, do not agree with the actions of others. The causes of social contradictions and problems can be: lack of funds and conditions; obstacles on the way to the goal; inconsistency of goals between subjects, etc. Being different, according to the level of significance, contradictions at a certain stage often lead to social conflict.

Conflict (from Latin confliktus - collision) is usually called the highest stage of contradiction, when the opposites existing in contradiction turn into extreme opposites, reaching the moment of negation of each other. Social conflict is always associated with people's awareness of the contradictions of their interests as members of certain social groups with the interests of other subjects. Aggravated contradictions give rise to open or closed conflicts.

Contradictions permeate all spheres of society: economic, political, social, spiritual. The aggravation of certain contradictions creates zones of crisis. The crisis manifests itself in a sharp increase in social tension, which often develops into a conflict. Marxist and non-Marxist sociologists point out that conflict is a temporary state of society that can be overcome by rational means.

The conflict from the point of view of philosophy is a category that reflects the stage (phase and form) of the development of the category "contradiction", when the opposites existing in contradiction turn into extreme opposites, reaching the moment of negating each other and removing the contradiction.

Most scientists tend to believe that the existence of a society without conflicts is impossible, because conflict is an integral part of people's existence, the source of changes taking place in society. Conflict makes social relations more mobile. Under the influence of conflicts, society can be transformed. The stronger the social conflict, the more noticeable its influence on the course of social processes, the pace of their implementation.

The origins of the study of the problem of conflict date back to ancient times. Even Chinese philosophers in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. saw the source of the development of nature and society in the struggle of opposites. The thinkers of ancient Greece created the doctrine of opposites and their role in the emergence of things.

N. Machiavelli paid much attention to the study of conflicts. In his works on Roman history, he examines conflicts of various levels and notes their positive role in social development.

However, the conflict was considered more thoroughly by A. Smith. In 1776, his work “Studies on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” was published, in which he wrote that the basis of the conflict was the division of society into classes and economic rivalry between them. The latter was seen as the driving force behind the development of society.

G. Hegel made a great contribution to understanding social conflicts. He considered one of their reasons for the social polarization between the "accumulation of wealth" and the "labor-bound class".

Already in the last century, many thinkers proceeded from the fact that conflict is a reality, an inevitable phenomenon in the life of society and a stimulus for social development. These views were held by the German sociologist M. Weber, the Austrian sociologist L. Gumplovich, and others.

From the standpoint of historical materialism, K. Marx and F. Engels considered social conflict, who believed that conflicts are generated, first of all, by social inequality and manifest themselves in the class struggle. It is the class struggle that is not only inevitable, but also necessary for discovering and resolving the contradictions of the capitalist system.

Marx was the first philosopher who considered society as an objective self-developing reality. The source of this self-development is contradictions and conflicts, primarily in material life. “At a certain stage of its development,” he writes, “the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production, or—which is only the legal expression of the latter—with the property relations within which they have hitherto developed. From the forms of development of the productive forces, these relations are transformed into their fetters. Then comes the epoch of social revolution... Consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the existing conflict between social productive forces and production relations.”

Three key points should be noted. The driving force behind the development of society is the contradiction between the productive forces and production relations. The social revolution is not a political accident, but a natural manifestation of historical necessity. The consciousness of people reflects real life contradictions. In other words, regardless of the subjective desires of individuals, the ruling elites, the masses think and act depending on the nature of the contradictions, primarily in material life. Contradictions and conflicts change - the forms of thinking of people change accordingly, there is a reassessment of values. If the material interests of the masses are constantly not taken into account, if the contradictions grow and deepen, then a revolutionary consciousness arises, setting the masses in motion, and through the social revolution a radical change, a qualitative renewal of social relations takes place.

Critics of Marxism note that the problem of conflict in Marxism has not received a comprehensive justification, because conflicts were considered by this doctrine only as a clash between antagonistic classes. In addition, the Marxist concept absolutized economic relations, which were considered the main cause of the conflict between classes and other social groups.

The modern concept of “social conflict” was first introduced into scientific circulation by the German philosopher Georg Simmel, who named one of his works published in the first quarter of the 20th century in this way.

The problem of conflict received its further theoretical substantiation in the 20th century. At the same time, the theory of conflict opposes the theory of the structural-functional analysis of society. Representatives of functionalism adhere to a balanced, conflict-free model of society. According to the views of supporters of this direction, society is a "system", the vital activity and unity of which are ensured through the functional interaction of its constituent elements, such as the state, political parties, industrial associations, trade unions, church, families, etc.

Ralf Dahrendorf created the theory of the conflict model of society based on the fact that any society is constantly subject to social changes and, as a result, experiences social conflict every moment. At the heart of the reason for the formation and development of social conflicts, the scientist saw a conflict of interests. Any society, in his opinion, relies on coercion. The members of society are initially characterized by the inequality of social positions (for example, in the distribution of property and power), and hence the difference in their interests and aspirations, which causes mutual friction and antagonism. Dahrendorf comes to the conclusion that social inequality and the social contradictions generated by it create social tension and conflict situations. The interests of the subjects directly influence the formation of the conflict. Therefore, in order to understand the nature of the conflict, it is necessary, first of all, to understand the nature of interest and the ways in which it is perceived by the subjects of the conflict.

According to Dahrendorf, social conflicts are often based on political factors: the struggle for power, prestige, authority. Conflicts can arise in any community where there are dominant and subordinate. Inequality of social positions means unequal access to resources for the development of individuals, social groups or communities of people. And hence the conflict of their interests. The inequality of social positions is reflected in the power itself, which allows one group to dispose of the results of the activities of other groups of people.

The struggle for possession and control of resources, for leadership, power and prestige make social conflicts inevitable. Conflict is perceived not as a blessing, but as an inevitable way to resolve contradictions.

Dahrendorf argues that conflicts are all pervasive components of social life. They cannot be eliminated just because we do not want them, they must be reckoned with as a reality. Conflicts are sources of innovation and social change. They do not allow society to stagnate, as they constantly create tension. According to Dahrendorf, the suppression and "cancellation" of the conflict leads to its aggravation. Therefore, the task is to be able to control the conflict: it must be legalized, institutionalized, developed and resolved on the basis of the rules existing in society.

A general theory of conflict is also being developed by the American sociologist Kenneth Ewart Boulding, who wrote Conflict and Defense: general theory” (1963). He states that in modern societies it is possible and necessary to regulate social conflicts. Boulding believes that conflict is inseparable from social life. The idea of ​​the essence of social conflicts allows society to control and manage them, to foresee their consequences. According to K. Boulding, a conflict is a situation in which the parties understand the incompatibility of their positions and seek to get ahead of the enemy with their actions. Conflict appears as a social interaction, in which the parties are aware of their opposition and their attitude towards it. And then they consciously organize themselves, develop a strategy and tactics of struggle. But all this does not exclude that conflicts can and should be overcome or limited.

All conflicts can be classified on different grounds.

According to their functions, conflicts are usually divided into destructive (disintegrative) and creative (integrative).

Destructive. Many social conflicts are highly destabilizing in social systems. Internal conflict destroys group cohesion. Strikes can leave thousands of people unemployed and cause serious damage to industry, a nuclear conflict threatens to destroy humanity.

Even when conflicts reach a new equilibrium, when new structures are formed, the cost can be very high. The Thirty Years' War (1619-1648) established the principle of religious tolerance, created new social structures, but it reduced the population of Germany by at least a third, brought destruction, and left a lot of abandoned land.

Speaking about the integrative, positive aspects of the conflict, it should be noted that a limited, particular consequence of the conflict may be an increase in group interaction. As a result of social conflict, the introduction of new policies and new norms is possible as soon as possible. Conflict may be the only way out of a tense situation.

Modern dialectical materialist philosophy also pays considerable attention to clarifying the role of conflicts in the development of society. The laws of social development inevitably lead to the emergence of a divided (structured) society. The society is stratified into social groups with differing, even hardly compatible, interests and claims reaching antagonism. The intensity of the struggle between individuals, groups, classes, states, etc. is moderated by their interest in preserving common resources for the preservation and further development of human civilization. The division (differentiation) of society becomes a source of serious conflicts, and the need to eliminate or localize these conflicts turns into a source of new tensions. To avoid this, social and spiritual mechanisms should be formed in society to smooth out, mitigate the inevitable contradictions through the use of reasonable compromises.

Conclusion

Thus, modern philosophy considers society as a combination of various parts and elements that are closely interconnected, constantly interact, therefore society exists as a separate integral organism, as a single system.

Modern social philosophy identifies four main characteristics of society: initiative, self-organization, self-development, self-sufficiency.

The development of society occurs according to certain laws. Social laws are necessary connections between certain parties and spheres of public life.

From the point of view of materialistic philosophy, social life is determined, but, unlike natural, social laws have a number of specific features.

The application of the dialectical materialist method to the analysis of social life and its history made it possible to discover a number of general sociological laws. What are these laws?

1. The law of the determining role of the mode of production in relation to other areas of activity.

2. The law of the determining role of the economic base in relation to the superstructure.

3. The law of the correspondence of production relations to the level and nature of the productive forces.

4. The law of the progressive change of socio-economic formations.

5. The law of social revolution.

6. The law of the growing role of the masses in history.

7. The law of the relative independence of social consciousness.

8. The law of the rise of needs, etc.

The world of social laws is many-sided. With changing conditions, some of them die off, others are formed. (For example, the law of change of form). Therefore, it is absurd to believe that all social laws have already been discovered, and that social science has reached completion.

There are a large number of private social laws that operate in certain areas of society and are studied by specific social sciences(political economy, demography, political science, jurisprudence, art history, linguistics, etc.). But in any case, regardless of the scale of action, social laws reflect the presence of social necessity and the objective course of social life.

Social contradictions and conflicts are the source of the development of society. The conflict from the point of view of philosophy is a category that reflects the stage (phase and form) of the development of the category "contradiction", when the opposites existing in contradiction turn into extreme opposites, reaching the moment of negating each other and removing the contradiction.

There is a dynamic relationship between the tendencies of the movement of society towards stability and towards conflict. These two lines of society's dynamics constitute a unity of opposites that intersect and complement each other.

List of sources used

1. Babosov E.M. General sociology: Proc. allowance for university students. - Minsk: TetraSystems, 2002.

2. Barulin V.S. Social Philosophy: Textbook. -- Ed. 2nd. -- M.: FAIR-PRESS, 2000.

3. Volchek E.Z. Philosophy: Proc. manual with textbook extracts - Minsk: Interpressservis, 2003.

4. Kalmykov VN Fundamentals of Philosophy: Proc. allowance - Mn .: Higher. school, 2003.

5. Marx K. Towards criticism political economy/ Marx K., Engels F. Works. - 2nd ed. - T.13.

6. Philosophy: studies, for students of institutions providing higher education/ Yu. A. Kharin - Mn. : TetraSystems, 2006.

7. Philosophy: Course of lectures: Proc. allowance for students. higher textbook institutions / Under the general editorship of. V.L. Kalashnikov. - M.: Humanit, ed. center VLADOS, 2003.

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social change - This diverse changes that take place over a certain period of time in society as an integral system, in its structure, in the activities and functioning of all components of society.

Among the main causes of social change are:

1 . Demographic changes (population growth, increase in life expectancy, etc.).

2 . natural changes. They, in turn, are divided into natural (floods, earthquakes, drought, etc.) and those that began as a result of human impact (depletion of mineral and energy resources, pollution environment, global warming, etc.).

3 . Changes in technology (automation of production, the use of computers) have significantly increased the economic productivity and standard of living of many segments of the population.

4 . Cultural changes (scientific discoveries, new beliefs and values, etc.).

Under the influence of various factors in society, there is a change:

A) the composition of the population (ethnic composition, occupations and incomes);

b) ways of behavior (change in the level of social interaction, ways of obtaining means of subsistence);

V) social structure(changes in the economy and distribution of power, in family life, education and religion);

G) culture (growth in popularity of any socio-political ideas).

Social change covers all areas of society, all kinds of diverse changes in it, constituting the essence of the social dynamics of society. Social dynamics can also be expressed through such concepts as the social process, social development, social evolution, social progress, etc. Social dynamics also includes consideration of the basic laws of the development of society. These include: the law of the acceleration of history (each subsequent stage of the development of society takes less time than the previous one, which indicates the consolidation of historical time) and the law of unevenness (peoples and nations develop at different speeds).

social development- the process of accumulating, irreversible changes in sufficiently large time intervals, as a result of which a qualitatively new state of a social object arises. The division of social changes into certain types can also be implemented depending on the direction of the ongoing changes. Thus, progressive, regressive social changes and cyclical movement are distinguished. With progressive social changes, there is a transition from the lower level of development of the social system to its higher level or to a new, more perfect social system. Regressive social changes consist in the transition from a higher to a lower stage of the development of society, in the processes of degradation, decline, etc.

Between progress and regression there is not only a connection of opposites, but a more diverse interdependence. So, on the one hand, individual regressive changes can occur within the framework of the general progressive development of the social system, and, on the other hand, with the intensification of regressive changes in the system as a whole, its individual structural components or functions can maintain or enhance the progressive direction of development. Social progress is possible, but this possibility does not imply its inevitability. Cyclic movement - the alternation of ascending and descending development, progress and regression.

Depending on the pace of social change distinguish the following types of social development: social evolution and social revolution.

social evolution These are slow, gradual changes in society.

social revolution are rapid, radical changes in society. Various revolutions are taking place in society: in the productive forces, science and technology, in consciousness and culture, etc. A social revolution presupposes qualitative changes in social relations, in their entire system.

Human history represents a gradual transition from one type of society to another. In sociology, it is customary to single out several typologies of societies for various reasons.

By criterion writing distinguish between preliterate and written societies (alphabet and fixation of sound on material media).

By the number of levels of government and the degree of social stratification differentiate between simple and complex societies. simple societies arose 40 thousand years ago. social organization simple societies are characterized by the following features: egalitarianism, i.e. social, economic and political equality, the relatively small size of the association, the priority of blood and family ties, the low level of division of labor and the development of technology. In science, it is customary to distinguish two stages in the development of simple societies: local groups and primitive communities.

Complex societies arose 6 thousand years ago e. A transitional form from a simple society to a complex one is the chiefdom. . In terms of numbers, the chiefdom is a large association. In chiefdoms, there is inequality in property, several levels of government (from 2 to 10 or more). Until now, chiefdoms have survived in Polynesia, New Guinea and tropical Africa. Complex societies include those where a surplus product appears, commodity-money relations, social inequality and social stratification (slavery, castes, estates, classes), a specialized and widely branched management apparatus.

The basis of the third classification of societies is mining method livelihood . Allocate hunting and gathering societies . For example, the natives of Central Australia. Societies engaged in cattle breeding and horticulture. At present, this type of society has survived mainly in Africa and the south of the Sahara (nomadic lifestyle). The political structure of this society consists of no more than two layers, the basis of the social structure is family ties.

Agrarian societies appeared as a result of the Neolithic revolution. First appeared in ancient Egypt. This type of society is characterized by: a sedentary lifestyle, the use of wooden
hoes, which were gradually replaced by a wooden plow, and later by an iron plow, animals began to be used as labor force, agricultural productivity increased, and a surplus agricultural product appeared. All this, in turn, is a prerequisite for the emergence of cities, the development of crafts and trade. The system of kinship ties ceased to be the basis of the social structure of society and gave way to more complex ones. Despite this, family ties continued to play an important role in political life for a long time.

Industrial societies arose after the Industrial Revolution (England) and the French Revolution. The main role in the development of industrial societies was played by industrial technologies and the use of new energy sources. Gradually evolved highly developed systems government controlled. The emergence of this type of society was facilitated by industrialization (the creation of large-scale machine production) and urbanization(migration of people to cities). This led to the replacement of feudalism by capitalism and the class stratification of society, the establishment of a new political form of society - democracy.

According to K. Marx, the type of society is determined mode of production and form of ownership, depending on which they distinguish: primitive, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, socialist and communist society.

Modern sociology uses the most general classification of types of societies. Thus, the American sociologist D. Bell identifies the following types of societies: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial. The industrial society arose about 200 years ago, when an agrarian civilization was replaced by an industrial one. The formation of a post-industrial society falls on the 70s. 20th century, characterized by information Technology, information and services .

concept "modernization" in world sociology describe the transition from pre-industrial to industrial, and then to post-industrial society. The concept of modernization is based on the concept of social progress and assumes that all societies, no matter what era they exist and in what region they are located, are involved in a single, universal process of scientific and technological progress, in which the cultural identity of each country recedes into the background, and what unites them comes to the fore - the system of universal human values.

Modernization- a complex set of economic, social, cultural, political changes taking place in society in connection with the process of industrialization, the development of scientific and technological achievements. Modernization is designed to explain how countries that are belated in their development can reach the modern stage and solve internal problems, that is, it indicates the way to enter the world community, which is understood as the world economic system of capitalism.

There are two types of modernization: organic And inorganic. Organic modernization assumes that the country develops along the capitalist path on its own basis and is prepared by the entire course of the previous evolution (for example, England). Inorganic modernization assumes that the country catches up with more developed countries and borrows advanced technologies, investments and experience from them (for example, Japan).

Along with modernization in sociology in considering the issue of social dynamics, attention is paid to strategies sustainable development of society , which was substantiated in the "World Strategy for Environmental Protection" (1980), and the main conclusion of which is that the further development of society is impossible without the preservation of the environment. This implies both the preservation of the habitat and the natural resource potential of the biosphere, as well as the limitation of economic growth and the creation of conditions for a fair distribution of the natural resource potential.

Among the main principles of sustainable development the following can be distinguished: the principle of bioanthropocentrism, the principle of reducing consumption by optimizing needs, the principle of ecological cleanliness of human activity, the principle of compensation, i.e. the restoration of disturbed processes in nature, the principle of compliance of the pace and nature of the development of society with the laws of evolution of the biosphere, and others.

Subject: social science

Class, profile: Grade 8, social studies

FULL NAME. teacher, No. OU: Grigorkina G.S., MOU gymnasium No. 19 named after Popovicheva N.Z.

Software and methodological support:

Program (basic level)

Used textbooks: A.I. Kravchenko

Theme of the lesson: "Social progress and development of society"

Target:

To acquaint students with the trends in the development of society, including the law of acceleration of history, the uneven development of various peoples and nations, explain the essence of social progress and its types.

After studying the topic, students should:

explain the essence of the law of acceleration of history, argue your answer with specific examples;

to know that peoples and nations are developing at different speeds, to be able to explain this trend on the example of the development of countries;

explain the essence of social progress, which includes economic, technical and cultural progress;

be able to determine in which cases society develops in a reformist way, and in which - in a revolutionary way;

know the definitions of the following concepts: the law of acceleration of history, progress, regression, reform, revolution, historical epoch.

Lesson plan:

The main laws of the development of human society: why is history accelerating?

The law of uneven development of peoples and nations of the world.

whether society always develops progressively. What is social progress?

Reforms and revolutions.

Starting to consider the first question, the teacher needs to emphasize that, studying the evolution of societies, scientists have come to the conclusion that there are patterns in their development.

Having considered the chronological framework of each historical epoch, students come to the conclusion that historical time has become denser.

The figure to the paragraph shows the essence of the law of acceleration of historical time. Considering the drawing (p. 33 of the textbook), students should explain:

a) How do the level of development of society and historical time relate to each other?

b) Why is this relationship called the law of acceleration of history?

The teacher draws the attention of the children to the additional text of the paragraph "Acceleration of history" (p. 34 of the textbook). Have students explain the statistics presented in the text.

Having completed such work, students come to the conclusion that each subsequent stage covers a much smaller period of time than the previous one. However, the level of development of society, on the contrary, becomes higher.

Quite impressive are the data of sociologists that each subsequent social formation is 34 times shorter than the previous one. However, tools and technologies will improve much faster.

A certain period of human development is called historical era. Drawing the attention of students to this concept, and explaining its meaning, the teacher gives the task to groups of students to select the facts known to them, indicating that technical inventions, scientific discoveries have improved from era to era. To this end, students can be offered books as an assistant - history textbooks. ancient world, Middle Ages, modern and modern times. You can compare the level of development of each era by the following parameters:

a) the development of tools, technology and science;

b) the development of human intelligence;

c) the social organization of society.

(Such work should be done in a prepared class.)

In the previous lesson, the students, completing the task on the cards, learned that the Russian scientist N.N. Miklukho Maclay studied in the 19th century. relic societies of the Papuans living at the level of primitive society. Why does history "slow down" the evolution of individual peoples, people? Let the children make their guesses.

Why doesn't social time flow the same way everywhere?

Students are encouraged to consider whether expansion can be viewed capitalistically. developed countries on the territory of underdeveloped regions as a progressive phenomenon? (On the one hand, an artificial attempt to accelerate the process of peoples' development (importation of equipment, etc.), on the other, the destruction of identity).

It is desirable that during the discussion the guys argued their point of view. To keep track of bipolar judgments, one student should be invited to the board (to a sheet of drawing paper attached to the wall), who should fix these positions of the speakers. (Yes, it's progressive because...; No, it's violent and dangerous because...)

Consideration of the third question should be centered around the notion "social progress". It is explained by our science as a global progress in the development of human society from less perfect to more perfect, from a state of savagery to the heights of civilization.

Explaining the essence of social progress, the teacher involves children in the dialogue, who, with the help of specific facts, prove what characterized social progress and its components in certain historical eras.

Studying the question completes the problem task:

Think about whether society can develop backwards, regressively?

Explaining this problem, the teacher must reinforce in the understanding of students that progress is global in nature, and regression is local and covers individual societies and periods of time.

Students are asked to complete the following task.

“History of mankind knows numerous wars. It was in their state for a much longer period of time than in the state of the world. Think about how wars affected the development of society? What function did they fulfill: progressive or regressive?

You can offer students to divide into two groups with bipolar opinions and try to answer the question posed with a pre-proposed installation (students try to prove the proposed position by arguing with their opponents):

Yes, wars had a progressive influence on the development of society, because:

during the period of hostilities, there is a rapid improvement in technology, including military equipment, and the military-industrial complex of the country develops.

Enterprises, firms for the production of weapons receive government orders, their profits are growing rapidly. There is an enrichment of many structures.

IN war time the people manifest special feelings of patriotism, unity, which contributes to the unity of the nation, the growth of its intellectual capabilities.

During the war, many unique talented works of science, art (songs, music, painting ...)

War exterminates part of the population, thereby regulating the solution of demographic problems.

War promotes new discoveries in the field of medicine.

No, wars have a negative impact on society, because:

war means numerous victims of people, grief and tears.

During the war, numerous cultural values ​​were destroyed, including buildings, structures

War leads to colossal material losses: the destruction and devastation of cities and villages.

The stressful state of people leads to a violation of the psyche, people's health

Society is destabilized, losing able-bodied citizens and increasing the ranks of those who need social support.

There is a redistribution of the world, new conflicts are generated.

Social progress can be gradual or abrupt. In the first case, reformist changes take place in society, and in the second, revolutionary ones. When considering this issue, attention should be paid to the difference in these concepts.

Students are invited to analyze the events below and group them into 2 columns of the table, explaining orally:

a) Why this event can be attributed to this species social progress?

b) How did the changes take place, who became the initiator and “guide” of changes in life?

Privatization of housing, legally permitted in Russia.

Introduction of tax incentives by domestic entrepreneurs.

Legal abolition of serfdom in 1861 in Russia.

change in the judicial system in the 60s. XIX century, in accordance with which the jury trial, adversarial process, etc. were introduced.

The events of 1917 in Russia that led to changes political system(monarchy - republic), the liquidation of the bourgeoisie, the destruction of private property.

The technological, industrial rise of the Western European states of the 18th-19th centuries, as a result of which machine production replaced the old manufactory.

Thus, students independently, with the organizing role of the teacher, begin to understand that:

Reform- improvement in a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200blife, which is gradual in nature, not affecting the foundations of the existing system.

Revolution - a complex change in most aspects of life, bringing society to a qualitatively new level of development.

At the end of the topic, the teacher can work with the concepts discussed in the lesson. To do this, it is necessary to offer to build a terminological model of their relationship on the board and ask them to explain individual concepts orally.

D / z: 4 paragraph, complete tasks and answer questions for the paragraph. Separate groups of children can be given individual tasks: pick up facts from the literature, the media. Proving regular trends in the development of society. Lessons ...

Typology of societies.

Several types of society, united by similar features or criteria, make up a typology.

First typology chooses writing as the main feature, and all societies are divided to pre-literate(i.e. able to speak but not write) and written(owning the alphabet and fixing sounds in material media: cuneiform tablets, birch bark, books, newspapers, computers).

According to second typology, societies are also divided into two classes - simple and complex. The criterion is the number of management levels and the degree of social stratification. In simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor. These are the primitive tribes. In complex societies, there are several levels of government, several social strata of the population, arranged from top to bottom as income decreases.

Simple societies coincide with preliterate ones. They don't have a rigidity, complex management and social stratification. Complex societies coincide with written ones. This is where writing, branched government and social inequality appear.

At the base third typology there is a way of obtaining means of subsistence (hunting and gathering, cattle breeding and gardening, agriculture, industrial and post-industrial society).

In the middle of the 19th century K. Marx proposed his typology of societies. The basis is two criteria: the mode of production and the form of ownership. Society at a certain stage historical development called socio-economic formation. According to K. Marx, mankind has successively gone through four formations: primitive, slave-owning, feudal and capitalist. The fifth was called the communist one, which was to come in the future.

Modern sociology uses all typologies, combining them into some kind of synthetic model. Its creator is considered a prominent American sociologist Daniela Bella. He divided all history into three stages: pre-industrial (which was characterized by power), industrial (which was characterized by money) and post-industrial (which was characterized by knowledge).

Law of acceleration of historical time. Its essence is as follows. Comparing the evolution of societies, the various stages that human civilization goes through in its development, scientists have found out a number of patterns. One of them can be called a trend, or the law of the acceleration of history. It says that each subsequent stage takes less time than the previous one. The closer to the present, the stronger the spiral of historical time shrinks, society develops faster and more dynamically. Thus, the law of the acceleration of history testifies to the densification of historical time.

law of regularity. The second law, or the tendency of history, states that peoples and nations develop at different rates. That is why in America or Russia there are industrially developed regions and areas where the population has preserved the pre-industrial (traditional) way of life.

When, without going through all the previous stages, they are involved in the modern flow of life, their development can consistently manifest not only positive, but also Negative consequences. Scientists have found that social time at different points in space can flow at different speeds. For some peoples, time passes faster, for others - more slowly.

Some general laws of system development can be applied to society as well. When we talk about systems, we mean a whole that is made up of parts and is a unity. This unity, which is very important, is not limited to its constituent elements.

Society is also a system, it is an organized collection of people. We are all part of it, so many of us are wondering how it develops. The laws of its development can be discovered by examining the sources of progress. In society, three spheres of reality interact with each other, "worlds" that are not reducible to each other. This is, firstly, the world of things and nature, which exists independently of the consciousness and will of man, that is, it is objective and subject to various physical laws. Secondly, this is a world in which objects and things have a social existence, since they are products of human activity, his labor. The third world represents human subjectivity, spiritual ideas and essences relatively independent of the objective world. They have the greatest degree of freedom.

Nature as a source of social development

The world of nature contains the first source of social development. The laws of social development in the past were often formulated based on it. It is the basis for the existence of society, which, interacting with it, improves. Do not forget that it was the laws of the development of nature that led to the emergence of man. The largest civilizations, which is characteristic, originated in the beds of large rivers, and the most successful development of the capitalist formation in the world was carried out in states with a temperate climate.

It should be noted that the current stage of interaction between society and nature is marked by the concept. Its main reason was the setting of people to conquer nature, as well as ignoring the boundaries of its resistance to anthropogenic influences. People turn a blind eye to the basic laws of development, forget about everything in pursuit of momentary gain and do not take into account the consequences. It is necessary to change the behavior and consciousness of billions of inhabitants of the Earth so that nature can continue to provide us with the necessary resources.

The role of technology in the development of society

The next source is technological determinants, that is, the role of technology, as well as the process of division of labor in the social structure. They also provide social development. Laws today are often formulated on the basis of the role of technology. This is not surprising - it is now being actively improved. However, according to T. Adorno, the question of the priority of technology and economics is the question of what appeared first: the egg or the chicken. The same can be attributed to the type and nature of human labor, which largely determines the system of social relations. All this has become especially obvious today, when the contours have been outlined. The main contradiction in this case arises between the humane goals of its existence pursued by man and the world that carries a potential threat. information technology. Many problems are caused by its active development.

Therefore, the laws of the development of society are beginning to be revised, the emphasis is on it. We will talk about it now.

Spiritual sphere as a source of social progress

Leaving aside the "primary" (initial) stage, as well as the "secondary forms" of the community that grew on its form, Marx believed that, in relation to the era of class society and civilization, the ancient, feudal, Asian and bourgeois (modern) modes of production can be called progressive eras of social economic formation. In the social science of the USSR, a simplified formula of the process of historical development was used, implying the transition of primitive society first to slave-owning, then to feudal, then to capitalist and, finally, to socialist.

The concept of "local civilizations"

The concept of "local civilizations", which was created by the efforts of A. D. Toynbee, O. Spengler and N. A. Danilevsky, enjoys the greatest recognition in the philosophical thought of the 19th-20th centuries. According to it, all peoples are divided into civilized and primitive, and the first - also into cultural and historical types. The phenomenon formulated as "Challenge-and-Response" is of particular interest here. It consists in the fact that calm development is suddenly replaced by a critical situation, which, in turn, prompts the growth of one or another culture. The authors of this concept made an attempt to overcome Eurocentrism in the understanding of civilization.

Systems approach

In the last quarter of the 20th century, an approach was developed according to which the world is a system in which the laws of the development of man and society operate. This is due to the fact that at this time the process was gaining strength. In the global conglomerate, one can single out the "periphery" and the "core", which form a "world-system" as a whole, which exists according to the laws of superformation. Information and everything related to it has become the main commodity of today's type of production. And this, in turn, changes the idea that the historical process is of a linear type.

Laws of economic development

These are constantly recurring, essential, stable links between economic phenomena and processes. For example, the law of demand expresses an inverse relationship that exists between a change in the price of a certain product and the demand that arises for it. Like other laws of the life of society, economic laws operate regardless of the desire and will of people. We can distinguish among them universal (general) and specific.

General - those that operate throughout the history of mankind. They functioned even in a primeval cave and continue to be relevant in a modern company, and will also operate in the future. Among them are the following laws of economic development:

Increasing needs;

Progressive development of the economy;

Increasing opportunity costs;

Growing division of labor.

The development of society inevitably leads to a gradual increase in needs. This means that over time, people have a growing idea of ​​a set of goods that they regard as "normal". On the other hand, the standard of each type of good that is consumed increases. Primitive people, for example, wanted to have, above all, a lot of food. Today, as a rule, a person no longer cares about not dying from its lack. He strives to ensure that his food is varied and tasty.

On the other hand, as purely material needs are satisfied, the role of social and spiritual ones increases. For example, in modern developed countries, when choosing a job, young people are more and more concerned not so much with earning more (which allows them to dress and eat exquisitely), but with the fact that work has a creative nature, gives the opportunity for self-realization.

People, seeking to meet new needs, improve production. They increase the range, quality and quantity of goods produced in the economy, as well as increase the efficiency of the use of various natural resources. These processes can be called economic progress. If the existence of progress in art or morality is disputed, it is indisputable in economic life. It can be achieved through the division of labor. If people specialize in the production of some specific goods, then overall productivity will increase markedly. However, in order for each person to have a complete set of benefits that he needs, it is necessary to organize a constant exchange between members of society.

Redistribution and decentralized exchange

K. Polanyi, an American economist, identified 2 methods of coordinating actions between participants in production. The first is redistribution, that is, exchange, centralized redistribution. The second is the market, that is, a decentralized exchange. In pre-capitalist societies, redistributive product exchange prevailed, that is, natural, carried out without the use of money.

At the same time, the state forcibly seized part of the products produced by its subjects from them for further redistribution. This method was characteristic not only for the societies of the Middle Ages and antiquity, but also for the economies of the socialist countries.

Even under the primitive system, market barter was born. In pre-capitalist societies, however, it was mostly a secondary element. Only in a capitalist society does the market become the main method of coordination. At the same time, the state actively encourages its development by creating various laws, for example, the Law on the Development of Entrepreneurship. Monetary relations are actively used. In this case, the exchange of goods is carried out horizontally, between producers who are equal in rights. Each of them has complete freedom of choice in the search for partners for transactions. The Small Business Development Act provides support to small firms that find it difficult to function in the face of growing competition.

materialists argue that the study of the causes of social development should begin with a study of the process of production of immediate life, with an explanation practices from ideas, not ideological formations from practice.

Then it turns out that the source of social development is the contradiction (struggle) between people's needs and how they can be met. The possibility of satisfying needs depends on the development and struggle of two factors: productive forces and production relations, which constitute the mode of production of material life, which determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. The historical types of production relations are determined by the formational stages in the development of the productive forces.

At a certain stage of its development, the productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing production relations. From the forms of development of the productive forces, these relations are transformed into their fetters. Then comes the era of social revolution. With a change in the economic basis, a revolution takes place more or less quickly in the superstructure. In considering such upheavals, it is always necessary to distinguish the upheaval in the economic conditions of production from the legal, political, religious, artistic and philosophical forms in which people are aware of this conflict and struggle with it.

essence idealistic understanding of history lies in the fact that the study of society does not begin with an analysis of the results practical activities, but with consideration of its ideological motives. The main factor of development is seen in the political, religious, theoretical struggle, and material production is seen as a secondary factor. And then, consequently, the history of mankind appears not as the history of social relations, but as the history of morality, law, philosophy, etc.

Ways to develop society:

Evolution (from lat. evolutio - deployment, changes). In a broad sense, this is any development. In a narrow sense, this is a process of gradual accumulation of quantitative changes in society, which prepare qualitative changes.

Revolution (from lat. revolution - coup) - qualitative changes, a radical revolution in social life, ensuring progressive progressive development. A revolution can take place in the whole society (social revolution) and in its separate spheres (political, scientific, etc.).

Evolution and revolution do not exist without each other. Being two opposites, they, at the same time, are in unity: sooner or later, evolutionary changes lead to revolutionary, qualitative transformations, and those, in turn, give scope to the stage of evolution.

Direction of social development:

First group thinkers argues that the historical process is characterized by cyclical orientation (Plato, Aristotle, O. Spengler, N. Danilevsky, P. Sorokin).

Second group insists that the dominant direction of social development is regressive (Hesiod, Seneca, Boisgilbert).

Third group States that progressive the direction of history prevails. Mankind develops from less perfect to more perfect. (A. Augustine, G. Hegel, K. Marx).

At all progress- this is a movement forward, from the lowest to the highest, from simple to complex, the transition to a higher stage of development, changes for the better; development of new, advanced; it is the process of the upward development of mankind, which implies a qualitative renewal of life.

Stages of historical development

The theoretical constructions of the progressive stage development of society were proposed by both idealists and materialists.

An example of an idealistic interpretation of progress is the concept three-stage development of society, owned by I. Iselen (1728–1802), according to which humanity in its development passes successively through the stages: 1) the dominance of feelings and primitive simplicity; 2) the predominance of fantasies over feelings and softening of morals under the influence of reason and education; 3) the dominance of reason over feelings and fantasy.

During the Enlightenment, in the works of such prominent scientists and thinkers as A. Turgot, A. Smith, A. Barnave, S. Desnitsky and others, a materialistic four-stage the concept of progress (hunting-gathering stage, pastoral, agricultural and commercial), based on the analysis of technological methods of production, geographical environment, people's needs and other factors.

K. Marx and F. Engels, systematizing and, as it were, summing up all the teachings on social progress, developed theory of social formations.

The theory of social formations of K. Marx

According to K. Marx, humanity in its development goes through two global periods: the “realm of necessity”, that is, subordination to any external forces, and the “realm of freedom”. The first period, in turn, has its own stages of ascent - social formations.

social formation, according to K. Marx, it is a stage in the development of society, distinguished on the basis of the presence or absence of antagonistic classes, exploitation and private property. Marx considers three social formations: "primary", archaic (pre-economic), "secondary" (economic) and "tertiary", communist (post-economic), the transition between which takes place in the form of long qualitative leaps - social revolutions.

Social being and social consciousness

Social life - it is the practical life of society. Practice(Greek praktikos - active) - this feeling is the objective, purposeful joint activity of people in the development of natural and social objects in accordance with their needs and demands. Only a person is able to practically and transformatively relate to the natural and social world around him, creating the necessary conditions for his life, changing the world around him, social relations, society as a whole.

The measure of mastering the objects of the surrounding world is expressed in the forms of practice that are of a historical nature, that is, they change with the development of society.

Practice Forms(according to the means of life of society): material production, social activity, scientific experimentation, technical activity.

Perfection material production, his

productive forces and production relations, is the condition, basis and driving force of all social development. Just as society cannot stop consuming, so it cannot stop producing. True

social activities is the improvement of social forms and relations (class struggle, war, revolutionary changes, various management processes, maintenance, etc.).

scientific experimentation is a test of the truth of scientific knowledge before its widespread use.

Technical activities today constitute the core of the productive forces of the society in which a person lives, have a significant impact on the entire public life and on the person himself.

public consciousness(according to content) - This

a set of ideas, theories, views, traditions, feelings, norms and opinions that reflect the social existence of a particular society at a certain stage of its development.

public consciousness(according to the method of formation and the mechanism of functioning) is not a simple sum of individual consciousnesses, but is the common that is contained in the minds of members of society, as well as the result of unification, the synthesis of common ideas.

public consciousness(in essence) - this is a reflection of social life through ideal images in the minds of social subjects and in the active feedback on social life.

The laws of interaction of social consciousness and social being:

1. The law of relative conformity of public consciousness to the structure, logic of functioning and change of social life. Its content is revealed in the following main features:

In epistemological terms, social being and social consciousness are two absolute opposites: the first determines the second;

In functional terms, social consciousness can sometimes develop without social being, and social being can in some cases develop without the influence of social consciousness.

2. The law of the active influence of social consciousness on social life. This law manifests itself through the interaction of the social consciousnesses of various social groups, with the decisive spiritual influence of the dominant social group.

These laws were substantiated by K. Marx.

Levels of public consciousness:

Ordinary level constitute social views that arise and exist on the basis of direct reflection by people of social life, based on their immediate needs and interests. The empirical level is characterized by: spontaneity, not strict systematization, instability, emotional coloring.

Theoretical level social consciousness differs from the empirical one in greater completeness, stability, logical harmony, depth and systemic reflection of the world. Knowledge at this level is obtained mainly on the basis of theoretical research. They exist in the form of ideology and natural science theories.

Forms of consciousness (on the subject of reflection): political, moral, religious, scientific, legal, aesthetic, philosophical.

Morality- this is a kind of spiritual and practical activity aimed at regulating social relations and people's behavior with the help of public opinion. Moral expresses an individual slice of morality, that is, its refraction in the mind of a single subject.

Morality includes moral consciousness, moral behavior and moral relations.

Moral (moral) consciousness is a set of ideas and views about the nature and forms of people's behavior in society, their relationship to each other, therefore, it plays the role of a regulator of people's behavior. In the moral consciousness, the needs and interests of social subjects are expressed in the form of universally recognized ideas and concepts, prescriptions and assessments, supported by the power of mass example, habits, public opinion, and traditions.

Moral consciousness includes: values ​​and value orientations, ethical feelings, moral judgments, moral principles, categories of morality and, of course, moral norms.

Features of moral consciousness:

First, moral norms of behavior are supported only public opinion and therefore the moral sanction (approval or condemnation) has an ideal character: a person must be aware of how his behavior is evaluated public opinion, accept it and adjust your behavior for the future.

Secondly, moral consciousness has specific categories: good, evil, justice, duty, conscience.

Thirdly, moral norms apply to such relations between people that are not regulated government bodies(friendship, fellowship, love).

Fourth, there are two levels of moral consciousness: ordinary and theoretical. The first reflects the real morals of society, the second forms the ideal predicted by society, the sphere of abstract obligation.

Justice occupies a special place in moral consciousness. The consciousness of justice and the attitude towards it at all times have been a stimulus for the moral and social activity of people. Nothing significant in the history of mankind has been accomplished without the awareness and demand for justice. Therefore, the objective measure of justice is historically conditioned and relative: there is no single justice for all times and for all peoples. The concept and requirements of justice change as society develops. Only the criterion of justice remains absolute - the degree of compliance of human actions and relations with social and moral requirements achieved at a given level of development of society. The concept of justice is always the realization of the moral essence of human relations, the concretization of what is due, the realization of relative and subjective ideas about good And evil.

The most ancient principle - "Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself" - is considered the golden rule of morality.

Conscience- this is a person's ability to moral self-determination, to self-assessment of a personal attitude to the environment, to the moral norms in force in society.

Political consciousness is a set of feelings, stable moods, traditions, ideas and theoretical systems that reflect the fundamental interests of large social groups regarding the conquest, retention and use of state power. Political consciousness differs from other forms of social consciousness not only by the specific object of reflection, but also by other features:

More specifically expressed by the subjects of knowledge.

The predominance of those ideas, theories and feelings that circulate for a short time and in a more compressed social space.

Legal consciousness

Right- this is a kind of spiritual and practical activity aimed at regulating social relations and people's behavior with the help of the law. Legal awareness is an element of law (along with legal relations and legal activities).

legal awareness there is a form of social consciousness in which knowledge and evaluation of the legal laws adopted in a given society, the legitimacy or illegality of actions, the rights and duties of members of society are expressed.

Aesthetic consciousness - there is an awareness of social being in the form of concrete-sensual, artistic images.

The reflection of reality in the aesthetic consciousness is carried out through the concept of the beautiful and the ugly, the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic in the form artistic image. At the same time, aesthetic consciousness cannot be identified with art, since it permeates all spheres of human activity, and not just the world of artistic values. Aesthetic consciousness performs a number of functions: cognitive, educational, hedonistic.

Art is a kind of spiritual production in the field of aesthetic exploration of the world.

Aestheticism- this is the ability of a person to see beauty in art and in all manifestations of life.

Laws of development of society:

General patterns- this is the conditionality of the real social process by the dialectical laws of the development of the objective world, that is, the laws to which all objects, processes, phenomena without exception are subject.

Under general laws refers to the laws that govern the emergence, formation, functioning and development of all social objects (systems) as a whole, regardless of their level of complexity, their subordination to each other, their hierarchy. These laws include:

1. The law of the conscious nature of the life of social organisms.

2. The law of the primacy of social relations, secondary social formations(communities of people) and tertiary social institutions(sustainable forms of organization of human life) and their dialectical relationship.

3. The law of unity of anthropo-, socio- and cultural genesis, who argues that the origin of man, society and its culture, and from the "phylogenetic", from the "ontogenetic" points of view, should be considered as a single, holistic process, both in space and in time.

4. The law of the decisive role of human labor activity in the formation and development of social systems. History confirms that the forms of activity of people, and, above all, labor determine the essence, content, form and functioning of social relations, organizations and institutions.

5. The laws of correlation of social being (practices of people) and social consciousness.

6. Regularities of the dialectical-materialistic development of the historical process: dialectics of productive forces and production relations, basis and superstructure, revolution and evolution.

7. The law of progressive stage development of society and its refraction in the features of local civilizations, which expresses the dialectical unity of change and continuity, discontinuity and continuity.

8. The law of uneven development of different societies.

special laws. They are subject to the functioning and development of specific social systems: economic, political, spiritual, etc., or individual stages (stages, formations) of social development. Such laws include the law of value, the law of a revolutionary situation, etc.

Private public laws fix some stable connections that are manifested at the level of the simplest social subsystems. As a rule, special and particular social laws are more probable than general ones.

A fatalistic and voluntaristic understanding of the laws of social life should be avoided.

Fatalism - the idea of ​​laws as inevitable, fatally acting on people forces, against which they are powerless. Fatalism disarms people, makes them passive and careless.

Voluntarism - it is an ideological setting that absolutizes the code of human goal-setting and action; a view of the law as the result of arbitrariness, as a consequence of an unrestricted will. Voluntarism can lead to adventurism, inadequate behavior on the principle of "what I want, then I turn back."

Forms of social development:

formation and civilization.

public formation - it is a concrete historical type of society, singled out according to the mode of material production, that is, characterized by a certain stage in the development of its productive forces and the corresponding type of production relations.

Civilization in the broad sense of the word - it is a developing socio-cultural system that has arisen as a result of the decomposition of primitive society (savagery and barbarism), and has the following features: private property and market relations; estate or estate-class structure of society; statehood; urbanization; informatization; producing economy.

Civilization has three type:

industrial type(Western, bourgeois civilization) involves transformation, breaking, transformation surrounding nature and social environment, intensive revolutionary development, change of social structures.

agricultural type(eastern, traditional, cyclical civilization) involves the desire to get used to the natural and social environment, to influence it as if from within, remaining a part of it, extensive development, the dominance of tradition and continuity.

post-industrial type- a society of high mass individualized consumption, the development of the service sector, the information sector, new motivation and creativity.

Modernization- This is the transition of an agrarian civilization to an industrial one.

Upgrade options:

1. The transfer of all progressive elements in full, taking into account local characteristics (Japan, India, etc.).

2. The transfer of only organizational and technological elements while maintaining the old social relations (China).

3. The transfer of only technology while denying the market and bourgeois democracy (North Korea).

Civilization in the narrow sense it is a stable socio-cultural community of people and countries that retain their originality and uniqueness over long periods of history.

Signs of a local civilization are: one economic and cultural type and level of development; the main peoples of civilization belong to the same or similar racial anthropological types; duration of existence; the presence of common values, features of a psychological warehouse, mental attitudes; similarity or similarity of language.

Approaches in the interpretation of the concept of "civilization" in its narrow sense:

1. Cultural approach(M. Weber, A. Toynbee) considers civilization as a special socio-cultural phenomenon, limited by spatio-temporal limits, the basis of which is religion.

2. Sociological approach(D. Wilkins) rejects the understanding of civilization as a society held together by a homogeneous culture. Cultural homogeneity may be absent, but the main thing for the formation of civilization is: a common spatio-temporal area, urban centers and socio-political ties.

3. Ethnopsychological approach(L. Gumilyov) connects the concept of civilization with the peculiarities of ethnic history and psychology.

4. Geographic determinism(L. Mechnikov) believed that the geographic environment has a decisive influence on the nature of civilization.

Formational and civilizational concepts of social development:

Formative approach was developed by K. Marx and F. Engels in the second half of the 19th century. He pays the main attention to the consideration of what is common in the history of all peoples, namely, the passage by them of the same stages in its development; all this is combined with varying degrees of consideration of the characteristics of various peoples and civilizations. The allocation of social stages (formations) is based on the ultimately determining role of economic factors (development and interconnection of productive forces and production relations). In formational theory, the class struggle is declared the most important driving force of history.

The specific interpretation of the formations in the bosom of this paradigm was constantly changing: Marx's concept of three social formations in Soviet period was replaced by the so-called “five-membered” (primitive, slave-owning, feudal, bourgeois and communist socio-economic formations), and now the four-formation concept is making its way.

Civilization approach developed in the XIX-XX centuries in the works of N. Danilevsky (the theory of local "cultural-historical types"), L. Mechnikov, O. Spengler (the theory of local cultures that pass and die in civilization), A. Toynbee, L. Semennikova. He considers history through the prism of the emergence, development, prospects and characteristics of various local civilizations and their comparison. The staging is taken into account, but remains in second place.

The objective basis of these approaches is the existence of three interpenetrating layers in the historical process, the knowledge of each of which requires the use of a special methodology.

First layer- superficial, eventful; just needs to be fixed properly. Second layer covers the diversity of the historical process, its features in ethnic, religious, economic, psychological and other respects. His research is carried out using the methods of civilizational approach and, first of all, comparative-historical one. Finally, third, the deep essential layer embodies the unity of the historical process, its basis and the most general laws of the development of society. It is known only by means of the abstract-logical formational methodology developed by K. Marx. The formational approach allows not only to theoretically reproduce the internal logic of the social process. But also to build his mental model facing the future. The correct combination and correct use of the indicated approaches is an important condition for military history research.

The problem of the regularity of social development is solved in different ways in different theoretical concepts. Not everyone recognizes the existence of objective laws in society. Indeed, on the surface of social phenomena it is extremely difficult to discover some stable, regular, necessary connections that are independent of human consciousness. The fact that certain changes are taking place in society and these changes lead to significantly different states of society is quite obvious. Everyone recognizes this. But it is not at all obvious that these changes are of a natural nature. Nevertheless, a deep theoretical analysis, penetrating beyond the surface of phenomena, makes it possible to establish these regularities. What appears on the surface as random events, phenomena, actions caused by the will, desire of individual people, in its depths appears as objective, i.e. relationships that do not depend on the will and desire of people. Whether people want it or not, they are forced, in order to satisfy their needs, to enter into relationships that develop as a result of previous activities, i.e. predetermined by the activities of previous generations. And each new generation finds these established relationships as objectively given (given by past activities), i.e. independent of their choice, desires, whims, etc. This is an objective factor in social development, which makes it possible to speak about the existence of objective and necessary ties (laws) in society.

The idea of ​​regularity in society was most fully developed in the Marxist concept of society. According to this concept, material relations between people, primarily in the sphere of material production, in order to develop do not require passing through the consciousness of people, i.e. are not recognized as such. This does not mean that people, entering into these relations (production, exchange, distribution), act as beings devoid of consciousness. This is basically impossible. Simply, material production relations do not require their awareness as a kind of integral system of relations that have a structure, direction, functioning, obey certain laws, etc. Ignorance of the laws of commodity production, ignorance of the physiological mechanisms of childbearing did not prevent people for thousands of years from producing and exchanging goods, as well as giving birth to children. Material relations, according to the Marxist model, being initial, primary, determine other relations, the so-called ideological relations (political, legal, moral, etc.).

The specificity of the laws of social development lies in the fact that, unlike the laws of nature, where blind, elemental forces act, in society, regular connections and relationships are realized, paving their way only through the activities of people, and not outside it, and along with it, it is in the activity people, in addition to random, situational moments due to various human desires or even whims, there are, as already noted, objective, necessary, i. regular moments. And this regularity, historical necessity does not exclude the conscious activity of people, being present in it as an objective, necessary factor. Historical necessity makes its way through a mass of accidents, i.e. has the character not of a strictly unambiguous predetermination, but of a certain trend, a field of possibilities. In other words, within the framework of necessity, the polyvariance of development is realized, which constitutes the space of human freedom. Making a conscious choice within the framework of various options (provided that a person has known these options, otherwise the choice will not be conscious), a person directs his efforts, his activities towards the implementation of the chosen option, within the framework represented by this polyvariant need. Choice is associated with responsibility, an essential companion of human freedom.

Dudnik Yu.D. Kurkov A.A. Rogalskaya N.A.

This article is an introduction to the program of searching for empirical patterns of civilization development. The first regularity was obtained from the results of scientific estimates of the age of the Universe given from the moment of the birth of science to the present. The idea of ​​the program and the first regularity of this program appeared due to the obtained physical results. Modern physical theory shows that the entire chain of evolution from the formation of the Universe and the Solar system to the evolution of planets is predictable and can be calculated. terrestrial group. In this article, in a popular form, the basics of a physical theory are outlined, which makes it possible to describe the physical characteristics of each of the planets of the terrestrial group. Evolution physical characteristics planets shows the conditions for the emergence and direction of development of life on Earth. If this entire chain is calculable, then we can assume the predictability of the evolution of civilization and the existence of strict socio-economic laws.

The presented article serves as an introduction to the intended series of articles, which is supposed to consider the general temperature and physical patterns on the terrestrial planets, the conditions for the emergence and evolution of life on Earth, the "laws" of the evolution of anthropoid apes and humans, as a natural successor to this entire evolutionary chain. The purpose of the planned series of articles is to show the predestination of the entire chain of events from the origin of the Universe to the present day and to consider some aspects of the evolution of civilization on Earth.

This chain of events stretched over time for 10 billion years, and the possibility of contact with other civilizations, for example, appeared for mankind 100 years ago. During this time, earthlings have not yet discovered other civilizations, but our observational capabilities are growing very quickly. It is possible that there are civilizations that are "older" than earthlings and they have colossal capabilities that we have not yet achieved, but these civilizations did not make contact because of its inexpediency.

In addition, this entire chain of events has been recreated by millions of scientists for several hundred years, there is no place for God in it, but only the scientists themselves need it, since an ordinary person will not see the difference between God's creation and the law of the Universe.

Let us first consider the evolution of scientific views on the age of the universe T. For this, information was collected from various estimates of the age of the Universe, the Solar System and the Earth, given by scientists from different positions at different times. t(date of). The initial data are collected in the table.

Since scientific estimates of the age of the Universe changed quite quickly, the table contains one more value - the logarithm of age (taking into account the laws of information accumulation - ln T) for which the figure is constructed. The figure represents the dependence of the logarithm of the age of the Universe on the date ln T = f(t) when this estimate is made by the scientist.

The figure also shows two horizontal lines. The line marked with number 1 corresponds to the age of the Universe according to the Bible (point No. 0 in the table), and the line marked with number 2 corresponds to the generally accepted modern age of the Universe (point No. 15 in the table).

The evolution of scientific estimates of the age of the Universe. Dark circles - initial data. Horizontal line 1 - the age of the Universe according to the Bible. Horizontal line 2 - the current generally accepted estimate of the age of the universe

The evolution of scientific estimates of the age of the universe

The date of foundation is not marked in the figure modern science, which can be taken as the date of publication of the treatise "On the Movement" by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) in 1590. As you know, G. Galileo is an Italian physicist, astronomer, philosopher and mathematician, the founder of experimental physics. With his experiments, he convincingly refuted the speculative metaphysics of Aristotle and laid the foundation for classical mechanics.

According to the table points with numbers 1-13 (dark circles in the figure), a linear regression dependence was drawn (an inclined line in the figure). Determination coefficient R 2 = 0.89 indicates the high quality of the obtained regression. As can be seen from the figure, the regression line crosses line 1 and line 2 in 1695 and 1956, respectively.

From the conducted small study it follows that since the emergence of science in 1590, it took:

Approximately one hundred years for the improvement of observational technology, the study of the surroundings closest to the Earth and the victory over religion (note that the formation of secular states went on in parallel, that is, science is a socio-economic process);

About 260 years for an unambiguous estimate of the age of the universe;

And about 55 years to create a physical theory and substantiate the observed age and the entire structure of the Universe (Empirical Theory of the Universe, point No. 14 in the table and a light square in the figure).

In subsequent articles, the figure will serve mathematical model analysis of socio - economic processes. And now let's return to the light square (No. 14 in the table) in the figure, more precisely, to the physical foundations that led to this result.

G. Galileo put experience (empiricism) as the basis of science, the generalization of the results of which leads to a theory. Theory, in turn, requires testing the limits of application by experience. The establishment of such a dialectical framework (lower - experience, upper - theory) allowed a person to purposefully and objectively not only cognize the world around him, but also transform it in his own interests.

At first, a simple observation in experience and the obvious (axioms) were used in the formation of theories. The limitations of obvious axioms were first revealed in the abstract sciences. In philosophy, dialectics served as the next step in the development of this science, and the ideas of D. Hilbert, which changed the axioms of Euclid, in mathematics. A crisis has also been outlined in physics, but the way out of it has not yet taken place. Subconsciously, physicists realize that the problem lies in understanding space, but in the microcosm the problem was replaced by “quantum space”, and in the macrocosm, despite the law of expansion of the Universe by E. Hubble, they added dark matter and dark energy.

The problem of physics is objectively complex, since space is so “obvious” for a person that it does not arouse any suspicion. It is so beyond suspicion that there are no ideas for registering or measuring it as physical quantity. Moreover, the existence of a "scientific" civilization did not allow to detect any changes associated with space, even A. Wegener's hypothesis about the split of the common continent and the expansion of the Atlantic Ocean did not move physical thought towards the study of space.

In physics, for quite a long time there has been a theory built not on axioms, but on empirical relationships (analogous to the ideas of D. Hilbert). In 1864, J. Maxwell created a theory in which the electric and magnetic fields are combined into a single whole - the electromagnetic field. It follows from this that the changes electromagnetic field generate electromagnetic waves, propagating with a constant, finite speed, depending on the properties of the medium. Even at its creation, this theory solved a number of problems, predicted new effects (subsequently fully confirmed) and has retained its efficiency to this day.

Attempts to extend the field theory of J. Maxwell to gravity have been made since its inception. The theory predicts that in this case, in addition to the law of universal gravitation, it is necessary:

Find the "magnetic" component of the gravitational field and calculate the corresponding constant;

Register the graviton and measure the speed of its propagation.

Such attempts were also made in the most traditional way - direct experience, completely without thinking about the physical meaning of the experiments.

The Empirical Theory of the Universe assumes that the graviton is space. Such a graviton cannot be registered or its speed measured in any experiment, but its properties must manifest itself in the solar system, for the existence of which it is responsible. According to the well-known data of the solar system, the missing constants are calculated, their physical meaning and application in this only studied gravitational system is shown.

The experiment showed the following values ​​of the new constants:

The physical meaning of the "magnetic" gravitational constant G K lies in the fact that it uniquely defines the space around the body (mass) and this space is simultaneously the carrier of gravitational interaction. If the mass of the Sun is divided by a constant G K , then we get the wavelength of the main graviton of the Sun - m; wave period - years. Both the length (radius of the orbit) and the period of the wave (the period of revolution of the planet) correspond to the main planet of the solar system - Jupiter.

Consequently, both the macrocosm and the microcosm have corpuscular-wave properties. Also, not only does mass determine space, but space also determines mass. That is, the mass of the Sun determines not only the space around it, but also the masses and properties of all objects included in the solar system (just as the charge of the nucleus determines the shells of the atom).

If the boundary of the Universe is determined by the front of light, that is, by the radius R = C∙T(Here T- the age of the Universe), then the space is "stretched" along with this front. The universe is the interior black hole and is described by the corresponding equation. It follows from J. Maxwell's field theory that the speed of light (and graviton) does not depend on the frame of reference, which means that the linear dimensions of space (and the dimensions of all bodies) in the Universe grow linearly and proportionally, and the mass of all cosmic bodies grows linearly (since the mass and space are unambiguously interconnected). So, our Universe is closed from the inside by the front of light and limited by its own space.

Knowing the law of change of the radius of the Universe R = C∙T, we obtain the law of expansion of the Universe:

This law was received in general view and unlike Hubble's law applies to all cosmic bodies. Moreover, the extension constant H depends on the age of the universe.

The principle of relativity of motion, which takes into account the expansion and low speed of the graviton compared to the speed of light, leads to the justification of the observed large-scale structure of the Universe and the hierarchy of the solar system.

Knowing the observed increase in the radius of the Moon's orbit around the Earth and the law of expansion, the age of the solar system is calculated. This age makes it possible to calculate the "anomalies" of the terrestrial planets: the rate of removal of each of the planets from the Sun, the rate of increase in the radii of the planets and the rate of increase in their masses.

Venus, Earth and Mars have atmospheres and binary hypsometric distributions. They are complemented by the Moon and Mercury. Thus, there is a statistical number of planets in order to obtain the laws of evolution of these planets, and calculate the evolution of each of them without resorting to building models. The predestination of the entire Universe and the simple laws of its structure and evolution serve as the basis for this plan.

So, it is possible, on the basis of open universal laws, to calculate and trace the evolution of the required parameters (physical, chemical, and others) on Earth in order to understand the causes, conditions, and the entire course of biological evolution on the planet.

Such an impressive introduction inspires the search for similar universal laws of the socio-economic evolution of civilization.

Bibliography

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