Privacy Policy

website

Moscow

This Personal Data Privacy Policy (hereinafter referred to as the Privacy Policy) applies to all information posted on the website on the Internet at the address: (hereinafter referred to as the Website), which visitors to this website can receive about the User while using the Website, its services, programs and products.

Using the services of the Site means the unconditional consent of the User with this Policy and the conditions for processing it specified in it. personal information; in case of disagreement with these conditions, the User must refrain from using the services.

1. GENERAL PROVISIONS

1.1. Within the framework of this Policy, the User's personal information means:

1.1.1. Personal information that the User provides about himself independently when registering (creating an account) or in the process of using the Services, including the User's personal data. The information required for the provision of the Services is marked in a special way. Other information is provided by the User at his discretion.

1.1.2. Data that is automatically transmitted to the services of the Site in the course of their use using the software installed on the User's device, including IP address, cookie data, information about the User's browser (or other program that accesses the services), specifications equipment and software used by the User, the date and time of access to the services, the addresses of the requested pages and other similar information.

1.1.3. Other information about the User, the processing of which is provided for by the Agreement on the use of the Site.

1.1.4. This Privacy Policy applies only to the Site. The Site does not control and is not responsible for the websites of third parties to which the User can follow the links available on the Site.

2. PURPOSE OF PROCESSING USERS' PERSONAL INFORMATION

2.1. The Site collects and stores only that personal information that is necessary for the provision of services or the execution of agreements and contracts with the User, except when the legislation provides for the mandatory storage of personal information for a period specified by law.

2.2. The Site processes the User's personal information for the following purposes:

2.2.1. Identification of the User who filled out the form on the site, for sending letters, sending SMS messages to the specified mobile phone, making calls to the user.

2.2.2. Providing the User with access to the personalized resources of the Site.

2.2.3. Establishing feedback with the User, including sending notifications, requests regarding the use of the Site, the provision of services, processing requests and applications from the User.

2.2.4. Determining the location of the User to ensure security, prevent fraud.

2.2.5. Confirmation of the accuracy and completeness of personal data provided by the User.

2.2.6. Creating an account to access the remote portal, if the User has agreed to create an account.

2.2.7. Notifications to the Site User about news and changes that have occurred to the site owner.

2.2.8. Providing the User with effective customer and technical support in case of problems related to the use of the Site.

2.2.10. Implementation of mass mailings emails, sending SMS messages, using a retargeting pixel, for advertising, using a cookie, determining location, conducting surveys.

3. CONDITIONS FOR PROCESSING PERSONAL INFORMATION OF USERS AND ITS TRANSFER TO THIRD PARTIES

3.1. The Site stores personal information of Users in accordance with the internal regulations of specific services.

3.2. With respect to the User's personal information, its confidentiality is maintained, except in cases where the User voluntarily provides information about himself for general access to an unlimited number of persons. When using individual services, the User agrees that a certain part of his personal information becomes publicly available.

3.3. The Site has the right to transfer the User's personal information to third parties in the following cases:

3.3.1. The user has agreed to such actions.

3.3.2. The transfer is necessary for the User to use a certain service or to fulfill a certain agreement or contract with the User.

3.3.4. The transfer is provided for by Russian or other applicable legislation within the framework of the procedure established by law.

3.3.5. In the event of the sale of the Site, the acquirer shall transfer all obligations to comply with the terms of this Policy in relation to the personal information received by him.

3.4. The processing of the User's personal data is carried out without time limit in any legal way, including information systems personal data with or without the use of automation tools. The processing of personal data of Users is carried out in accordance with the Federal Law of July 27, 2006 N 152-FZ "On Personal Data".

3.5. In case of loss or disclosure of personal data, the Site Administration informs the User about the loss or disclosure of personal data.

3.6. The Site Administration takes the necessary organizational and technical measures to protect the User's personal information from unauthorized or accidental access, destruction, modification, blocking, copying, distribution, as well as from other illegal actions of third parties.

3.7. The Site Administration, together with the User, takes all necessary measures to prevent losses or other negative consequences caused by the loss or disclosure of the User's personal data.

4. OBLIGATIONS OF THE PARTIES

4.1. The user is obliged:

4.1.1. Provide information about personal data necessary to use the Site.

4.1.2. Update, supplement the provided information about personal data in case of changes in this information.

4.2. The Site Administration is obliged to:

4.2.1. Use the information received solely for the purposes specified in this Privacy Policy.

4.2.2. Ensure that confidential information is kept secret, not disclosed without the prior written permission of the User, and also not to sell, exchange, publish or disclose in other possible ways the transferred personal data of the User, except as provided for in this Privacy Policy.

4.2.3. Take precautions to protect the confidentiality of the User's personal data in accordance with the procedure usually used to protect this kind of information in existing business transactions.

4.2.4. Block personal data relating to the relevant User from the moment the User or his legal representative or authorized body for the protection of the rights of personal data subjects applied or requested for the period of verification in case of revealing inaccurate personal data or illegal actions.

5. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PARTIES

5.1. The Site Administration, which has not fulfilled its obligations, is liable for losses incurred by the User in connection with the unlawful use of personal data, in accordance with the law Russian Federation.

5.2. In case of loss or disclosure of confidential information, the Site Administration is not responsible if this confidential information:

5.2.1. Became public property before its loss or disclosure.

5.2.2. It was received from a third party until it was received by the Site Administration.

5.2.3. Was disclosed with the consent of the User.

6. DISPUTES RESOLUTION

6.1. Before going to court with a claim for disputes arising from the relationship between the Site User and the Site Administration, it is mandatory to file a claim (a written proposal for a voluntary settlement of the dispute).

6.2. The recipient of the claim, within 14 calendar days from the date of receipt of the claim, notifies the claimant in writing of the results of the consideration of the claim.

6.3. If an agreement is not reached, the dispute will be referred to the court in accordance with the current legislation of the Russian Federation.

6.4. The current legislation of the Russian Federation applies to this Privacy Policy and the relationship between the User and the Site Administration.

7. ADDITIONAL TERMS

7.1. The Site Administration has the right to make changes to this Privacy Policy without the consent of the User.

7.2. The new Privacy Policy comes into force from the moment it is posted on the Site, unless otherwise provided new edition Privacy Policy.

7.3. Any suggestions or questions about this Privacy Policy should be directed to

7.4. The current Privacy Policy is posted on the page at:

7.5. This Privacy Policy is an integral part of the Agreement on the use of the Site, posted on the page at:

Information for information:

<1>According to part 5 of Art. 18 federal law dated 27.07.2006 N 152-FZ "On personal data" when collecting personal data, including through the information and telecommunication network Internet, the operator is obliged to ensure the recording, systematization, accumulation, storage, clarification (updating, changing), extraction of personal data of citizens the Russian Federation using databases located on the territory of the Russian Federation, except for the cases specified in paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 8, part 1 of Art. 6 of the Federal Law of July 27, 2006 N 152-FZ "On Personal Data".

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829–1905)- Physiologist, naturalist, doctor of medicine, professor, honorary member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, laureate of the XXXII Demidov Prize.

Education. In 1848, I. M. Sechenov graduated from the Main engineering school in St. Petersburg.

At our university. He graduated in 1856, worked as a Privatdozent, head of the Department of Physiology. With the participation of I. M. Sechenov, the Physiological Institute was founded.

Internships abroad. After graduating from our university, he trained abroad. Emile Dubois-Reymond, Carl Ludwig, Herman Helmholtz, Claude Bernard had a particularly deep influence on I. M. Sechenov. K. Ludwig became a lifelong teacher and friend of the Russian physiologist.

Short biography. Ivan Sechenov was born in the village of Tyoply Stan, Simbirsk province (now the village of Sechenovo, Nizhny Novgorod region). In 1856, after graduating from the medical faculty, he went abroad at his own expense to prepare for a professorship.

During his stay abroad, Sechenov struck up friendly relations with the future outstanding scientists S. P. Botkin, D. I. Mendeleev, A. P. Borodin, which continued throughout his life.

In 1860 he became a professor at the Department of Physiology at the Medical and Surgical Academy of St. Petersburg. It was then that he organized one of the first physiological laboratories in Russia.

I. M. Sechenov actively supported the progressive aspirations of women for higher medical education. He taught Nadezhda Prokofievna Suslova and Maria Alexandrovna Bokova (his future wife), who became the first female doctors in Russia.

Working in different higher institutions Russia I. M. Sechenov, always achieved brilliant results, both in science and in the education of students, in the organization of scientific and social activities. Among his colleagues and friends were outstanding people from different fields of science and culture. So, for example, at the Novorossiysk University in Odessa, he talked with I. I. Mechnikov (Nobel Prize winner in 1908).

In 1889, I.M. Sechenov returned to the alma-mater to the Department of Physiology, and two years later he headed it. Ten years of leadership of the department (1891-1901) were fruitful: the efforts of the scientist created a physiological laboratory. Here, I. M. Sechenov studied gases and the respiratory function of the blood, the laws of human labor activity, and was able to establish optimal modes of work and rest.

Leaving the post of head in 1901, I. M. Sechenov continued to actively pursue Scientific research in his laboratory.

The scientist has always supported any form of popularization of science, in the last years of his life he lectured on anatomy and physiology in the Prechistina working classes.

He died in 1905. He was buried at the Vagankovsky cemetery. In 1940, his ashes were transferred to the Novodevichy cemetery.

Scientific achievements. In 1860, I. M. Sechenov defended his thesis for the degree of Doctor of Medicine “Materials for future physiology alcohol intoxication».

I. M. Sechenov discovered and described in detail the fundamental physiological phenomena of the activity of the central nervous system: central inhibition, summation of excitations and aftereffect.

He put forward a position on the originality of reflexes, the centers of which lie in the brain, and on the reflex basis of mental activity. He gave a scientific justification for the optimal duration of the working day for workers.

I. P. Pavlov, an outstanding physiologist, Nobel Prize winner (1904), called the doctrine of the reflex nature of brain activity a brilliant stroke of Sechenov's thought, and the author himself - "the founder of native physiology and the bearer of a truly free spirit." For the explanation of mental life, this doctrine is of decisive importance, since it reveals the specific brain mechanisms of the mental, shows under what conditions it is formed and what significance it has in the life of the organism. IM Sechenov's brilliant conjecture about the reflex nature of brain activity found experimental confirmation and development in Pavlov's teaching. I. P. Pavlov exclaims:

“Yes, I am glad that, together with Ivan Mikhailovich and a regiment of my dear employees, we have acquired for mighty power physiological research instead of a half-hearted whole inseparably animal organism. And this is entirely our Russian undeniable merit in world science, in the general human thought.

in our Museum. The Museum funds contain publications by I. M. Sechenov, including books and articles published in Germany, Austria on German: Physiologische Studien über die Hemmungsmechanismen für die Reflexthätigkeit des Rückenmarks im Gehirne des Frosches. Hirschwald, Berlin 1863; Ueber die elektrische und chemische Reizung der sensiblen Rückenmarksnerven des Frosches. Leuschner & Lubensky, Graz 1868.

A significant number of devices that the scientist used in his experiments are presented in the branch of the Museum - the exposition "Memorial Museum of I.M. Sechenov". Among them: ergographs, kymographs, sphygmomanometer, galvanometer, reflexometer, etc.

Biography of Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov

Born on August 13, 1829 in the village of Teply Stan, Simbirsk province (now the village of Sechenovo in the Nizhny Novgorod region). The son of a landowner and his former serf.

He graduated in 1848 from the Main Engineering School in St. Petersburg. passed military service in Kyiv, retired in 1850 and a year later entered Moscow University for Faculty of Medicine from which he graduated summa cum laude in 1856.

During an internship in Germany, he became close friends with S. P. Botkin, D. I. Mendeleev, composer A. P. Borodin, artist A. A. Ivanov. Sechenov's personality had such an impact on the Russian artistic intelligentsia of that time that N. G. Chernyshevsky copied his Kirsanov from him in the novel What Is to Be Done?, and I. S. Turgenev - Bazarova ("Fathers and Sons").

In 1860 he returned to St. Petersburg, defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medical Sciences and headed the department at the Medical and Surgical Academy, as well as a laboratory where research was carried out in the field of physiology, toxicology, pharmacology, and clinical medicine.

From 1876 to 1901 he taught at Moscow University. Sechenov devoted more than 20 years of his life to the study of gases and the respiratory function of the blood, but his most fundamental work is the study of brain reflexes. It was he who discovered the phenomenon of central inhibition, called Sechenov's inhibition (1863). At the same time, at the suggestion of N. A. Nekrasov, Sechenov wrote for the Sovremennik magazine an article “An attempt to introduce physiological foundations into mental processes,” which the censors did not let through for “propaganda of materialism.” This work, entitled "Reflexes of the Brain", appeared in the Medical Bulletin (1866).

In the 90s. Sechenov turned to the problems of psychophysiology and the theory of knowledge. The course of lectures he gave at Moscow University formed the basis of The Physiology of the Nerve Centers (1891), which deals with a wide range of nervous phenomena - from unconscious reactions in animals to higher forms of perception in humans. Then the scientist began research in new area- labor physiology.

In 1901, Sechenov retired. His name was given to the 1st Moscow medical academy, Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry RAS. The Academy of Sciences established the Sechenov Prize, which is awarded every three years for outstanding research in physiology.

discoveries and scientific works THEM. Sechenov

Research and writings by I.M. Sechenov were devoted mainly to thermal problems: physiology nervous system, the chemistry of breathing and the physiological foundations of mental activity. With his works, I.M. Sechenov laid the foundation for Russian physiology and created a school of Russian physiologists, which played an important role in the development of physiology, psychology and medicine not only in Russia, but throughout the world. His work on the physiology of blood respiration, gas exchange, the dissolution of gases in liquids, and energy exchange laid the foundations for future aviation and space physiology.

Sechenov's dissertation became the first in history fundamental research the effect of alcohol on the body. It is necessary to pay attention to the general physiological provisions and conclusions formulated in it: firstly, “all movements that are called arbitrary in physiology are, in the strict sense, reflective”; secondly, the most general character normal activity of the brain (since it is expressed by movement) there is a discrepancy between excitation and the action it causes - movement”; And finally, "the reflex activity of the brain is more extensive than that of the spinal cord."

Sechenov was the first to carry out a complete extraction of all gases from their blood and determined their amount in serum and erythrocytes. Particularly important results were obtained by I.M. Sechenov in studying the role of erythrocytes in the transfer and exchange of carbon dioxide. He was the first to show that carbon dioxide is found in erythrocytes not only in a state of physical dissolution and in the form of bicarbonate, but also in a state of unstable chemical compound with hemoglobin. On this basis, I.M. Sechenov came to the conclusion that erythrocytes are carriers of oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.

Together with Mechnikov, Sechenov discovered the inhibitory effect of the vagus nerve on the turtle's heart. It turned out that with strong irritation of the sensory nerves, active motor reflexes arise, which are soon replaced by complete inhibition of reflex activity. This pattern is the largest physiologist N.E. Vvedensky, a student of Sechenov, proposed to call Sechenov's reflex.

In extremely subtle experiments, Sechenov made four cuts in the brain of frogs and then observed how reflex movements changed under the influence of each of them. The experiments yielded interesting results: inhibition of reflected activity was observed only after brain incisions were made directly in front of the thalamus opticus and in them themselves. Summing up the results of the first experiments - with sections of the brain, Sechenov suggested the existence of centers in the brain that delay reflected movements: in a frog they are located in the visual tubercles.

Thus began the second series of experiments, during which Sechenov produced chemical stimulation of various parts of the brain of a frog with table salt. It turned out that salt applied to a transverse section of the brain in a rhombic space always caused the same strong inhibition of reflective activity as the section of the brain in this place. Depression, but not so strong, was also observed with irritation of the transverse section of the brain behind the visual tubercles. The same results were obtained by electrical stimulation of transverse sections of the brain.

So, we can draw conclusions. First, in frogs, the mechanisms that delay reflected movements lie in the thalamus and medulla oblongata. Secondly, these mechanisms should be considered as nerve centers. Thirdly, one of the physiological ways of excitation of these mechanisms to activity is represented by fibers of sensory nerves.

These experiments by Sechenov culminated in the discovery of central inhibition, a special physiological function of the brain. The inhibitory center in the thalom region was called the Sechenov center.

The discovery of the process of inhibition was duly appreciated by his contemporaries. But the discovery, which he also made in the course of experiments with a frog, of reticulospinal influences (the influence of the reticular formation of the brain stem on spinal reflexes) received wide recognition only starting from the 40s of the 20th century, after elucidating the function of the reticular formation of the brain.

Another discovery by a Russian scientist dates back to the 1860s. He proved that the nerve centers have the ability "to sum up sensitive, singly not valid, irritations to an impulse that gives movement, if these irritations follow each other often enough." The summation phenomenon is an important characteristic nervous activity, first discovered by I.M. Sechenov in experiments on frogs, was later established in experiments on other animals, vertebrates and invertebrates, and gained universal significance.

Observing the behavior and development of the child, Sechenov showed how innate reflexes become more complex with age, come into contact with each other and create all the complexity of human behavior. He described that all acts of conscious and unconscious life, by way of origin, are reflexes.

Sechenov said that the reflex underlies both the basis and memory. This means that all voluntary (conscious) actions are in the strict sense reflected, i.e. reflex. Consequently, a person acquires the ability to group movements by repeating connecting reflexes. In 1866 The Physiology of the Nerve Centers manual was published, in which Sechenov summarized his experience.

In the autumn of 1889, at Moscow University, the scientist gave a course of lectures on physiology, which became the basis of the generalizing work Physiology of the Nerve Centers (1891). In this work, an analysis of various nervous phenomena was carried out - from unconscious reactions in spinal animals to higher forms of perception in humans. In 1894 He publishes "Physiological criteria for setting the length of the working day", and in 1901 - "Essay on the working movements of man."

THEM. Sechenov is one of the founders of Russian electrophysiology. His monograph On Animal Electricity (1862) was the first work on electrophysiology in Russia.

The name of Sechenov is associated with the creation of the first in Russia physiological scientific school, which was formed and developed at the Medico-Surgical Academy, Novorossiysk, St. Petersburg and Moscow Universities. At the Medical and Surgical Academy, Ivam Mikhailovich introduced the method of demonstrating an experiment into lecture practice. This contributed to a close relationship pedagogical process With research work and to a large extent predetermined Sechenov's success on the path of the scientific school.

The discoveries of I.M. Sechenov irrefutably proved that mental activity, like the corporeal, is subject to quite definite objective laws, is due to natural material causes, but is a manifestation of some special “soul”, independent of the body from the surrounding conditions. Thus, an end was put to the religious-idealistic separation of the mental from the physical and the foundations were laid for a scientific materialistic understanding of the spiritual life of man. THEM. Sechenov proved that the first cause of any human action, deed, is not rooted in inner world man, but outside him, in the specific conditions of his life and activity, and that no thought is possible without external sensory stimulation. This I.M. Sechenov spoke out against the idealistic theory of "free will" characteristic of the reactionary worldview.

The last years of his life, Sechenov devoted to the study of the physiological foundations of the regime of work and rest of a person. He discovered a lot of interesting things, and most importantly, he established that sleep and rest are different things, that eight hours of sleep is mandatory, that the working day should be eight hours long. But as a physiologist, analyzing the work of the heart, he came to the conclusion that the working day should be even shorter.

Founder of the Russian physiological school, founder of the era of objective psychology, one of the most bright figures in Russian medicine.

nobleman by birth, Ivan Sechenov was born in 1829 in the family of a former military man. Being poor, his parents were able to give him only homemade initial education. He was mainly taught by his mother, who had learned to read and write in a monastery before her marriage. When the time came for Ivan to receive further education, his father died. 8 children grew up in Ivan's family, of which five had already become independent by that time. The rest, including Ivan, were minors. In view of the deteriorating financial situation of the family, it was decided to send Ivan to the Main Engineering School. The tuition fee was relatively small, and the profession was promising. After finishing it Sechenov did not see the service as the business of his life and did not continue military career, and entered the medical faculty of Moscow University as a volunteer. In addition to lectures on medicine, he attended a course in cultural studies, history, philosophy, theology and other disciplines for general development. And although the order at the university was strict in a military way, Ivan Sechenov showed himself to be an exemplary and promising student.

As a man who received his first education in the mathematical sciences, Ivan Sechenov gravitated toward precision in medicine as well. Not being satisfied with the empiricism of the then medical science, he began to develop in the field of physiology and scientific pathology. He passed the more difficult doctoral exams instead of medical examinations and received a medical degree with honors. Russian medicine at that time lagged far behind Western, in particular, European. Therefore, after the death of his mother, Sechenov decided to go abroad to study physiology at the expense of the inheritance he received.

In Germany, Austria, he studied with the best professors, famous doctors, in particular,. For several years, Sechenov worked in the best laboratories in Europe. Abroad, he met with outstanding Russian talents - Botkin, Mendeleev, artists Alexander Ivanov, who is assisted in his work on the canvas "The Appearance of Christ to the People." The fruit of extensive study and practice abroad was a doctoral dissertation that investigated the physiology of intoxication. Sechenov made many experiments on himself. In 1860 he returned to St. Petersburg to defend his dissertation.

Having become a professor at the Medical Academy of St. Petersburg, Sechenov attracted with his lectures many not only medical students, but also people who were far from medicine. For example, Chernyshevsky and Turgenev attended his lectures on "animal electricity". Sechenov's lectures were so impressive that they were even published in the Military Medical Journal. Then these lectures were awarded the highest award of the Academy of Sciences, and Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov was elected to real members Academy of Sciences.

After 2 years, Sechenov left for Paris to work in the laboratory of Claude Bernard, the founder of endocrinology, a well-known French researcher of the processes of internal secretion. The discovery made during this year's sabbatical was the discovery of a process of central inhibition occurring in the brain. The description of this phenomenon was devoted to the article "Reflexes of the brain", published in the journal "Medical Bulletin" in 1863. The article explained the mental behavior of a person in connection with external stimuli, and not with a mysterious soul. Sechenov associated the reaction of the nervous system with reflexes, which he classified as simple and complex.

Sechenov's colleague, the physiologist Shaternikov, described the article as having made "an amazing impression ... on the whole thinking society." And Pavlov, who considered the work the pinnacle of Sechenov's scientific work, called it "a brilliant stroke of Sechenov's thought." The essence of the discovery was reduced to the ability of the brain to delay or inhibit excitation. This phenomenon became known as "Sechenov's inhibition". Sechenov conducted an experiment with a dog, which was limited access to smells, sounds and visual stimuli, as a result of which the dog constantly slept.

The discovery in the field of psychology, which at that time was the diocese of religion, attracted the attention of the authorities and the church to the scientist. The censor of Sechenov's work wrote to the leadership: "... undermines religious beliefs and moral and political principles." His scientific publications began to be banned, and the clergy offered to exile him for "calmness and pacification" in Solovetsky Monastery. Worried about the fate of a world-famous scientist, his friends offered him lawyers who the best way represent him in court. Sechenov was surprised: “Why do I need lawyers? I will bring a frog with me and show the prosecutor all my experiments. Let him refute me." The government did not dare to incur the shame of the world community and, in the end, allowed the printing of the work. However, the distrust of political reliability remained with the authorities for the outstanding Russian scientist for life.

One of the central works of Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov is Physiology of the Nervous System, published in 1866. In this work, the scientist proves the ability sensory systems a person to self-regulation and the existence of feedback between the muscles and the reaction of the central nervous system to the signals they give.

Sechenov actively advocated the equality of women and advocated for women's education. He admitted women to his lectures, at one time even supervised their scientific work and psychophysiological research. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov taught at women's courses in Moscow, and participated in the organization of the Higher Women's Courses. However, society was not ready to give ladies the same rights as men. Sechenov strongly opposed discrimination based on gender. In 1870, there was another story that was the last straw before the scientist retired. He recommended the outstanding scientists I. I. Mechnikov and A. E. Golubev as professors of the Academy of Sciences. However, they were voted out. With his resignation, Sechenov protested against discrimination against women and deserving scientists who were voted out.

Sechenov went to St. Petersburg University to work in chemical laboratory D. I. Mendeleev, with whom they had been friends since their studies abroad. Then from 1871 to 1876 he headed the department of physiology at the Odessa University. In the next five years, he returned to St. Petersburg to the Department of Physiology of the University. At the same time, the scientist taught at Moscow University, first as an assistant professor, then from 1891 as a professor.

In the last two decades of his life, Szecheno worked on a topic that seems not so serious to the uninitiated - the respiratory function of the blood. In St. Petersburg, he basically completed his work related to gas exchange in human body, laying the foundation for a whole direction in science. When in 1875 three daredevils soared into the air on a Zenith balloon, nothing foreshadowed a tragic death. Rising into the air for 8 kilometers, two of them died from suffocation. At the Congress of Naturalists in 1879, Sechenov made a report in which he scientifically substantiated the cause of the death of two aeronauts.

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov was a talented scientist with progressive views and an advanced opinion. The authorities did not like his independence and independence of judgment, therefore, at the end of his life, the scientist had to leave for Leipzig to do research work, which he was deprived of in Russia. So for three years he worked abroad, and at home he only lectured. In 1891 he was invited to return to take the place of the late professor of physiology at Moscow University.

Without leaving research on gas exchange, Sechenov designed several remarkable devices, in particular, a portable breathing apparatus, and continued to study neuromuscular physiology. In 1891, his main work was published, summarizing the main research and discoveries "Physiology of nerve centers", highly appreciated both in Russia and abroad. After 10 years, Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov retired and stopped teaching even in private courses. In 1901, his work "Essay on the working movements of man" was published, and three years later - "Objective thought and reality." In 1905, an outstanding Russian scientist passed away. His grave is in the Novodevichy Convent.

The works of I. M. Sechenov cover a wide range of areas of science and life. His discoveries influenced psychology, medicine, natural science. Some of his research formed the basis for developments in the gas transportation and oil and gas production. The ideas of the great Russian scientist are still recognized as relevant in human rights movements, trade unions, women's and labor movements.

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov. Born on August 1 (13), 1829 - died on November 2 (15), 1905. Russian physiologist and educator, publicist, rationalist thinker, founder of the physiological school, encyclopedic scientist, evolutionary biologist, psychologist, anthropologist, anatomist, histologist, pathologist, psychophysiologist, physical chemist, endocrinologist, ophthalmologist, hematologist, narcologist, hygienist, culturologist , instrument maker, military engineer.

He believed that Russians, just as the French consider Buffon one of the founders of their literary language, should also revere I. M. Sechenov as one of the founders of the modern Russian literary language.

Born on August 13, 1829 in a landowner's family of nobleman Mikhail Alekseevich Sechenov and his former serf Anisya Georgievna ("Egorovna") in the village of Teply Stan, Kurmysh district, Simbirsk province (now the village of Sechenovo, Nizhny Novgorod region). "In childhood, he later recalled, more than my father and mother, I loved my dear nurse. Nastasya Yakovlevna caressed me, took me for a walk, saved delicacies for me from dinner, took my side in squabbles with my sisters and captivated me most of all with fairy tales, for which she was a great craftswoman.. Due to the lack of funds in a large family, he received only home elementary education under the guidance of a literacy for the first time at the order of the owner in the monastery just before her marriage, but an intelligent and active mother, who considered mathematics necessary, natural Sciences, fluency in Russian and living foreign languages, and dreamed that her, "one of the millions of slaves", her son became a professor.

He graduated from the Main Engineering School in 1848. He was not enrolled in the upper officer class; therefore, he could not "go through the scientific part." He was released with the rank of ensign. The request of I. M. Sechenov to enroll him in the army in the Caucasus was not satisfied, he was sent to the second reserve engineer battalion.

Two years later, Lieutenant Sechenov retired and entered the medical faculty of Moscow University as a volunteer. At the university, in addition to studying medicine, he also listened to the lectures of T. N. Granovsky and especially P. N. Kudryavtsev, which helped him become an expert in the field of cultural studies, stupidity, philosophy, theology, deontology, ancient and medieval medicine, history in general.

Any scientific device, considering it, first of all, a subject of material culture, he called "history" all his life. In the 3rd year, he became interested in psychology, which was then considered a section of theology (in Orthodoxy), theology (in other confessions) and philosophy, and this, in his words, “Moscow passion for philosophy” later played an important role in his activities. It is curious that Professor Spassky M.F. taught a course in physics, and even though Sechenov himself considered this course elementary and according to Lenz’s textbook, in our time Sechenov was considered as a student and follower of M.F. Spassky, although I.M. Sechenov, and M. F. Spassky were students of M. V. Ostrogradsky. Sechenov, who decided to devote himself to private and general pathology (anatomy and physiology), already before studying at the university, received a solid engineering and physical and mathematical education, listened to lectures by a formally tough opponent of clinical (that is, on patients) experiments, head of the department of pathological anatomy and pathological physiology "medical star" Alexei Ivanovich Polunin, was infected with interest in topographic anatomy by the "most sympathetic professor" F. I. Inozemtsev, under whose guidance he began scientific activity while still studying, and comparative anatomy and physiology - Ivan Timofeevich Glebov.

Sechenov began to dream about physiology, especially since in his senior years he became disillusioned with the empirical, not based on scientific general pathology, experimental medical practice of that time, “learning from patients,” which even Polunin considered natural, but, having a solid engineering and physical -mathematical education, felt that he would be able to read physiology better than I.M. Sechenov’s favorite lecturer I.M. Sechenov, I.T. Having completed the full course of study with the right to receive a doctorate degree at the insistence of Dean N. B. Anke, Sechenov passed doctoral examinations instead of medical examinations and received a doctorate degree with honors. When he was in his 4th year, his mother suddenly died, and he decided to use the inheritance he received to fulfill his mother's dream. After successful delivery exams in 1856, Sechenov went abroad at his own expense to study physiology.

In 1856-1859 he worked in the laboratories of Johann Müller, E. Dubois-Reymond, F. Hoppe-Seyler in Berlin, Ernst Weber, O. Funke in Leipzig, K. Ludwig, with whom he had a particularly close friendship, in Vienna, recommendations of Ludwig - Robert Bunsen, Hermann Helmholtz in Heidelberg.

In Berlin, he attended courses in physics by Magnus and analytical chemistry by Rose. To study the effect of alcohol on blood gases, Sechenov designed a new device - the "blood pump", which was highly appreciated by Ludwig and all modern scientists, and which was subsequently used by many physiologists. (The original Sechenov's "blood pump" in working condition is stored in the Museum of the Department of General Physiology of St. Petersburg University). Abroad, he was friends with A. N. Beketov, S. P. Botkin, A. P. Borodin, the artist A. Ivanov, whom he assisted in working on the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People”. Perhaps it was under the influence of the views of Ivanov and his friend that the determination of I. M. Sechenov to confirm the teachings of Russian Orthodox Church about the bodily, in view of the unity of soul and body proved by him, the resurrection at the second coming of Christ.

Abroad, Sechenov not only dispelled the ideas that existed even among the best German scientists about the “inability of the round-headed Russian race” to understand modern physiology, but also prepared a doctoral dissertation “Materials for the future physiology of alcohol intoxication”, one of the first in Russian, which he successfully defended in 1860 at the Medical and Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg, where by this time I. T. Glebov had been transferred by vice president. In the same year, at the invitation of I. T. Glebov, he began working at the department of physiology of this academy, where he soon organized a physiological laboratory - one of the first in Russia.

For the course of lectures “On Animal Electricity” that amazed contemporaries at the Medico-Surgical Academy - even people as far from medicine as he was attended - he was awarded the Demidov Prize of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. At the beginning of 1862, he participated in the work of the Free University, then worked in Paris in the laboratory of the "father of endocrinology" Claude Bernard, this vacation was possibly associated with arrests among people of his circle in cases of the Velikoruss proclamations and "Bow to the lord peasants from their well-wishers ". In his classic work "Physiology of the nervous system" of 1866, he formulated in detail his doctrine of self-regulation and feedback, further developed by the theory automatic control and cybernetics, Sechenov also investigated the same problems during a year-long vacation in 1867 - officially regarding the treatment of skin allergies, possibly related to the appeal to the Senate of the Academician of the Medical-Surgical Academy Isidor with a request to exile Sechenov "for humility and correction" to the Solovetsky Monastery "for the presumptuous, soul-destroying and harmful doctrine." He spent most of this vacation in Graz, in the laboratory of his Viennese friend, the physiologist and histologist Professor Alexander Rollet (1834-1903). While working at the Academy, he took part in organizing a research marine biological station in Sevastopol (now the A. O. Kovalevsky Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas).

Having left the academy in 1870 in protest against the “discrimination of ladies” and the ballot recommended by I. I. Mechnikov and A. E. Golubev, he worked in the chemical laboratory of D. I. Mendeleev at St. Petersburg University and lectured at the Artists Club. In 1871-1876 he headed the Department of Physiology at the Novorossiysk University in Odessa. In 1876-1888 he was a professor in the department of anatomy, histology and physiology of the Department of Zoology of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University, where in 1888 he also organized a separate physiological laboratory. At the same time, he lectured at the Bestuzhev Higher Women's Courses, one of the founders of which he was.

Later, he taught at the women's courses at the society of teachers and educators in Moscow. At first, under the influence of Charcot's ideas, he mistakenly believed that I. M. Sechenov's brilliant foresights that were centuries ahead of the level of development of science of his time were explained by the state of affect, but then he himself objected to the falsifications of the biography of I. M. Sechenov, Nobel Prize winner I. P. Pavlov believed impossible to understand it correctly without knowing what is described in "What to do?" events anticipated the novel by I. M. Sechenov. It should be noted that although N. G. Chernyshevsky wrote about eight prototypes, including two women, the main prototype of Rakhmetov’s “special person” was indeed the brother-in-law of I. M. Sechenov, a political prisoner, an exiled settler, in the future - a prominent military figure tsarist Russia, Lieutenant General, retired, Vladimir Aleksandrovich Obruchev.

But contrary to popular belief, despite the support of the women's movement, the friendship of families and the cooperation of the educators N. G. Chernyshevsky and I. M. Sechenov and the similarity of the biographies of the hero of the novel What Is To Be Done? doctors Kirsanov and I. M. Sechenov, Vera Pavlovna and wife I. M. Sechenov, who studied with him together with N. P. Suslova, later Doctor of Medicine, Surgery and Obstetrics, ophthalmologist Maria Alexandrovna Bokova (nee Obrucheva - daughter of Lieutenant General Alexander Afanasyevich Obruchev), the novel was not based on real events life of I. M. Sechenov. As a subtle esthete, a theatergoer (a close acquaintance of I. M. Sechenov, the playwright even wrote the work “Actors according to Sechenov”, in which he anticipated some of the discoveries of Stanislavsky), a lover of Italian opera, a music lover and a musician who supported Ivanov, Antonina Nezhdanova, M. E. Pyatnitsky , he could not share the aesthetic theory of Chernyshevsky and could not be the prototype of the hero of the novel "Fathers and Sons" by Bazarov. Rather, N. G. Chernyshevsky could consider him a prototype of Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov, and then N. G. Chernyshevsky’s choice of the name of the hero Alexander Kirsanov in the novel, which he considered the answer to “Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev, is understandable. I. M. Sechenov, as the creator of his own harmonious philosophy, could not share Chernyshevsky's metaphysics either. Opponent of any medical and social experiments on people I. M. Sechenov “Like any great scientist, he was a dissident”(quote from a letter from his relative the academician) from the point of view of both bureaucracy, and liberals, and "nihilists".

In 1887, by a decision of the Tver diocesan court, the marriage of Maria and Peter Bokov was annulled, after which I. M. Sechenov and M. A. Bokova sealed their long-standing de facto union with the sacrament of the wedding. They turned the Obruchev family estate Klepenino into a model estate in Russia. Sechenov is not only the grandfather of Russian cybernetics, but also the great-uncle of the famous scientist in the field of cybernetics, computer technology, mathematical linguistics, the successor of research and pedagogical activity I. M. Sechenov in the field of theoretical, mathematical and cybernetic biology, including the endocrine system, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences A. A. Lyapunov. A. A. Lyapunov actively participated in the fight against, largely based on Sechenov’s official biographies, which had nothing to do with the life and works of I. M. Sechenov, “Soviet creative Darwinism” (that is, in essence, anti-Darwinism, arguing that on the example of plants and animals, it can be proved that all the acquired qualities of both the leaders of the party and the state, and the exploiters and enemies of the people are inherited by all descendants, regardless of upbringing and lifestyle, even if “the son is not responsible for the father”), which has nothing to do with I P. Pavlov "Pavlovian physiology", "Soviet nervism", "creation of a new man (in the camps)", "Michurin biology", occult teleology and vitalism, which in the USSR were called "materialism" and attributed to I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov.

Formulated long before Max Weber's Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, I. M. Sechenov's teaching on the connection between ethics and the development of the national economy and that, in order to achieve true free will, lay people, like monks, must continuously work on themselves and strive for their individual the ideal of a knight or lady, has nothing to do with the "Order of the Sword" and the "creation of a new man" in the interpretation. However, Joseph Stalin in November 1941 named Sechenov among those who embody the spirit of the people.

Even during the lifetime of I. M. Sechenov, who considered his works as a phenomenon of Russian literature idolized by him, just as the French consider Buffon one of the creators of the literary language, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin considered the most striking evidence of a decline in the mental level of attempts to somehow reflect clear filigree formulations of such an unsurpassed master of the word as I. M. Sechenov, even by means of music. But the official biographers of Sechenov in the USSR reformulated the essence of Sechenov’s works in the standard vein of propaganda newspaper clichés of the 1950s and attributed all his successes to the “party leadership of his scientific work”, ignoring his friendship with A. A. Grigoriev, I. S. Turgenev , V. O. Klyuchevsky, D. V. Grigorovich, the Botkin family, including friend V. P. Botkin - both they and I. M. Sechenov were never Marxists (that is, supporters of a comprehensive irrational "dialectical materialism” by I. Dietzgen, which is radically different from the rationalist “materialist dialectic” of Marx himself).

Biographers of I. M. Sechenov, therefore, in order to organize repressions against the academician of numerous relatives of I. M. Sechenov, who always doubted the authenticity of the “materialistic biographies”, published sensational articles “Semantic idealism - the philosophy of imperialist reaction”, “Cybernetics - the science of obscurantists”, “To whom serves as cybernetics”, who declared cybernetics a pseudoscience, and scientific method I. M. Sechenov - "mechanism turning into idealism."

I. M. Sechenov, who received a solid engineering and physical and mathematical education and effectively applied it in his scientific and pedagogical activities, of course, also used the approach that was later called cybernetics. He himself prepared, although he did not publish, a course in higher mathematics. According to Academician A. N. Krylov, of all biologists, only Helmholtz, also known as a great mathematician, could know mathematics as well as Sechenov. Sechenov’s student A.F. Samoilov recalled: “It seems to me that the appearance of Helmholtz, a physiologist, physiologist-philosopher, and the appearance of I.M. position of a sober natural scientist in areas where the speculation of philosophers has hitherto reigned. I. M. Sechenov - President of the First International Psychological Congress in Paris in 1889.

Since 1889 - assistant professor, since 1891 - professor of physiology at Moscow University. In 1901 he retired, but continued experimental work, as well as teaching at the Prechistensky courses for workers in 1903-04.

Sechenov's main works:

"Reflexes of the brain" - 1863
"Physiology of the nervous system" - 1866
"Elements of Thought" - 1879
"On the absorption of CO2 by solutions of salts and strong acids" - 1888
"Physiology of nerve centers" - 1891
"On alkalis of blood and lymph" - 1893
"Physiological criteria for setting the length of the working day" - 1895
"Instrument for fast and accurate analysis of gases" - 1896
"Portable breathing apparatus" - 1900, together with M. N. Shaternikov.
"Essay on the working movements of man" 1901
"Objective Thought and Reality" - 1902
"Autobiographical Notes" - 1904.