The object of physical geography is the geographical shell the globe, which consists of earth's crust, the lower part of the atmosphere (troposphere and parts of the stratosphere), hydrosphere, flora, soil cover and wildlife. Differences of the geographic shell from other spheres of the globe, both lower and higher, lie in the fact that it includes matter in three states of aggregation (in other spheres - mainly in any one), processes occur in it for due to both cosmic and telluric sources of energy (in other spheres - mainly due to one of them), and only in it there is life.

The study of the components of the geographic envelope showed that in their structure and development they are interconnected and mutually conditioned so closely and deeply that they form a single inseparable whole - a special phenomenon of nature, characterized by specific laws of structure and development.

Formed and developing on the surface of our planet, the geographic shell is genetically inextricably linked with the earth's surface, irradiated by solar radiation. In connection with the hydrothermal and geochemical conditions prevailing here, the shell eventually became an arena for the emergence and development of life, enriched by the plant and soil covers and wildlife included in its composition. Later it was the area of ​​origin and development human society.

We believe that the upper boundary of the geographic envelope passes in the stratosphere somewhat below the layer of maximum ozone concentration (height 20-25 km). Below, air movements dominate, associated with the interaction between the atmosphere, on the one hand, land and the oceans - on the other, above, such movements come to naught. Solar radiation, having passed through the layer of ozone concentration, is deprived of an excess of ultraviolet rays that is detrimental to organisms, and its composition approaches that observed in the stratosphere.

The lower boundary of the geographic shell is located in the subcrustal layer, which, unlike the earth's crust, has great plasticity without loss of properties. solid body. Interactions between the tectonic relief-forming processes of the earth's crust and the processes occurring in the subcrustal layer weaken already in the upper parts of the latter. This is where the lower boundary of the geographic envelope passes. Apparently, this boundary is located somewhat below the seismic "Mohorovichic surface", where the velocity of longitudinal seismic waves varies greatly, which indicates a sharp change physical properties mineral layer.

The characteristic features of the structure of the geographic shell are the tiered nature of its internal structure, the penetration of the components of the geographic shell into each other, and the complex regular regional differentiation.

IN energy the geographic shell is divided into two tiers: in the outer tier, the main source of heat is solar energy, in the inner tier - radiative decay and similar processes. The boundary between them on land passes at a depth of several tens of meters or less (in temperate latitudes at a depth of 15-20 m). The lithospheric part of the geographical envelope is also divided into a number of tiers.

The described features of the geographic shell, which naturally manifest themselves in the extreme diversity of its composition and structure and its natural processes, continuously and deeply interacting with each other, allow philosophically to consider the geographic shell of the Earth as a special complex form of motion of matter. In our opinion, the outer shells of other planets such as the Earth (Venus, Mars, etc.), which are unique for each planet, are a special form of motion of matter. It can hardly be doubted that such planets have a significant distribution in space.

The peculiarities of the geographic shell, the exceptional originality of the complex forms of the motion of matter inherent in it, as well as the fairly wide distribution of similar phenomena in space, make it possible to attribute physical geography (together with the study of the outer shells of other planets such as the Earth) to the few basic sciences of natural science.

In the process of its development, physical geography, like other major branches of natural science, has differentiated into a number of closely related disciplines that form an ever more complex system of physical and geographical sciences.

Physical geography in its modern sense began to take shape at the turn of the XIX And XX centuries, when V. V. Dokuchaev established two basic physical and geographical laws:

1) the law of integrity and continuity of the geographical environment - the mutual conditionality of its components (the lithosphere, the lower parts of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, vegetation and soil cover and wildlife) and 2) the law of geographical zonality. Establishing the integrity and inseparability of the geographical environment, VV Dokuchaev did not touch upon the question of what specific natural processes underlie the interdependent development of its components. IN Lately we have shown that the basis of the interconnection, interaction and interdependence of the components of the geographic shell of the globe is the exchange of matter and energy between its components, as well as between this shell and elements of space: primarily solar radiation, on the one hand, and subcrustal masses, on the other .

The interchange of matter and energy between the components of the geographic envelope consists of inextricably linked, but oppositely directed processes (inflow and consumption of matter and energy, their assimilation and dissimilation.

In the course of interchange, part of the matter and energy of one component constantly passes into the composition of others, one type of energy turns into another. This is accompanied by a change in the composition of both those substances of the components that are assimilated by other components, and the main mass of each component - under the long-term influence of substances of other components (during chemical and physical, and, in appropriate cases, also biochemical and biophysical interactions). These changes in the course of the development of our planet, as a rule, led to the complication of the composition and structure of the components of the geographic envelope. The complication of the composition and structure of the geographic shell inevitably entailed the complication of the processes of exchange of matter and energy between its components, as well as between it and the outside world. This, in turn, caused the emergence of new geochemical reactions and other natural processes in the geographical envelope, which, as a rule, led to a further complication of the composition and structure of the geographical envelope, etc.

Complications in the composition and structure of the geographic shell that occurred over periods of time on a geological scale manifested themselves in many ways. getting more complicated geological structure earth's crust. New, more and more highly organized types of plants appeared, which was accompanied by the development of new, more complex plant cover. organic compounds; the same applies to new, more highly organized types of animals, often associated in their life activity with new types of plants. New types of soil cover arose, associated with the entry into the soil or the formation in it of organic and mineral-organic compounds that did not exist before, produced by new plant species, etc. The appearance of new types of organisms and soil types led to the complication chemical composition land waters, and consequently, the ocean, in which more highly organized marine organisms also appeared. All these changes in the composition of biotic components, like the hydrosphere, had a significant impact on the composition of the atmosphere, again in the direction of its complexity.

Along with the processes of complicating the composition and structure, processes of the opposite nature (withering away, decay, etc.) took place in the geographic envelope, as an indispensable part of the development process, without violating its progressive nature.

Thus, the process of interchange of matter and energy between the components of the geographic envelope, as a rule, led to a progressive complication of its composition and structure. This development of the geographical envelope is based on the interchange of matter and energy between its components and between the geographical envelope and the outside world.

The driving force behind the development of the geographic envelope is the unity of the leading, inextricably linked, oppositely directed processes of the inflow and outflow of matter and energy, their assimilation and dissimilation, as well as accompanying processes. Hence, the exchange of matter and energy is the main driving force behind the development of not only the outer shells of the planets ( earth type), but also cosmic bodies in general. The latest ideas about the emergence and development of "star associations" and others space objects speak in favor of it.

At the heart of the really existing and very complex natural differentiation of the geographic envelope of the globe is the law of geographical zoning. A comparative study of the geographical zones of the earth's land showed that they form a regular system, the basis of which is the territorial changes in the annual values ​​of the radiation balance that are closely related to each other. earth's surface(slightly different from the value of the radiation balance of the growing season), annual precipitation and the relationship between the radiation balance and precipitation, expressed in thermal units, i.e., in calories needed to evaporate annual precipitation. This ratio is called the radiation index of dryness.

These factors have a decisive influence on the structure and development of the outer tier of the geographic envelope. The annual radiation balance is the main source of energy for most of the natural processes occurring on the earth's surface. The annual sums of precipitation and their correlation with the annual radiation balance of the earth's surface are of decisive importance for the development of the entire complex of natural processes in which moisture is involved. In particular, the nature and regime of soil moisture depends on the amount of moisture and its relationship with the radiation balance. And this, in turn (together with the magnitude of the radiation balance), has a huge impact on the nature and intensity of both biotic and many abiotic processes occurring in the outer tier of the geographic envelope.

When comparing the nature and regime of these soil moisture factors, it is striking that in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones there is a zone or subzone of optimal moisture with a dryness radiation index close to 1, which is the zone of maximum biomass production. In this zone, the soil water regime during most of the year provides an amount of moisture sufficient to ensure that the transpiration of the vegetation cover proceeds unhindered and, at the same time, the water content in the soil is not so high that it interferes in any way with the normal development of soil processes. aeration.

In a comparative analysis of the temperate zones and other belts, we observe that as the zones of optimal moisture change by zones of more and more excessive moisture or more and more insufficient moisture, the indicators of the dryness coefficient also change. In the first case, the index of dryness drops to 0.45 (tundra and tropical forest swamps), in the second it rises to 3 and higher (tropical deserts). In both cases, the productivity of vegetation and wildlife progressively decreases. All this suggests that the systems of zones of these belts are of the same type, differing mainly in the intensity of the natural processes occurring in them and the phenomena associated with them.

Due to all this, the geographic shell of the globe within the land represents a single regular periodic system of geographic belts and land zones of the globe (see table).

Thus, the structure of the outer tier of the geographic shell is based on the periodic law of geographic zoning common to our planet. This, in turn, testifies to the fundamental internal unity of the structure and development of the outer tier of the geographic shell throughout all belts and zones, and at the same time to the unity of the structure and development of all taxonomic territorial units that make up the zone, no matter how outwardly different they may be.

Changes in the structure, dynamics and development of the geographical envelope of various zones are associated, on the one hand, with changes in the radiation regime of the earth's surface, and on the other hand, with varying degrees participation in the structure and dynamics of the geographic shell of water in liquid form and biocomponents.

The degree of participation in the structure of the geographic envelope of various zones of liquid water, plant and soil covers and wildlife is associated with the qualitative features of these components and the nature of their influence on other components, including the atmosphere and lithosphere. This degree of participation of the hydrocomponent and biocomponents is inextricably linked with the qualitative features of themselves and the structure of the geographic envelope as a whole.

The degree of saturation of the geographic envelope with the above components is determined by the measure of their participation in its structure. This is due both to the history of the development of the geographic shell in the geological past (especially in the later stages), and to the diversity of the composition of the components. The latter, in turn, determines the degree of diversity of natural processes occurring in the geographical envelope. Thus, each zone is characterized by certain common features chemical and biochemical composition of its components, and, consequently, the general features of the chemical, biochemical and other processes occurring in these components. These features are associated primarily with the hydrothermal conditions characteristic of each zone, as well as with its geological history.

Two important conclusions follow from the general patterns of development of the zonal structure and territorial differentiation of the geographic envelope described above: closer to unity (taking into account the geological past of the territory); 2) at close values ​​of the radiation index of dryness (with rare exceptions ) the degree of saturation with moisture and biocomponents, the diversity of dynamics and the diversity of the composition of the geographical envelope (under similar conditions of the underlying surface) are the greater, the greater the annual radiation balance of the earth's surface (again, taking into account the geological past).

According to the latest research, the changes in the productivity of the vegetation cover, and consequently, the animal world of each zone, are based on the intensity of photosynthesis and the speed of outflow from the leaves of assimilants.

In each zone, they reach a maximum in the zone of optimal moisture. In different belts, they are the higher, the greater the value of the radiation balance of the earth's surface of these zones. So, for example, the zone of optimal moisture in the equatorial zone is the zone of non-bogged equatorial forests, in the temperate zone - the subzone of deciduous forests. In the first of them, the annual growth of natural vegetation reaches 40-50 t/ha dry mass (above ground), in the second - about 5.6 t/ha Both figures are the highest for the respective geographic zones. The latest studies of the biological foundations of irrigated agriculture in the temperate zone have shown that these regularities are also valid for many agricultural crops and should be guided by them when developing irrigation rates and timing.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that, as can be seen from the foregoing, the identification of the described patterns allows not only to better understand the dynamics and laws of the development of the geographic envelope of the Earth, but - and this is very important - makes it possible to come close to the development set before scientists XXII Congress of the CPSU problems of transformation and regulation of natural processes.

The grandiose tasks of developing the national economy of the USSR require close cooperation between the geographical sciences and practice, an in-depth study of geographical patterns necessary for the correct solution practical problems, and above all such as the problem of the rational distribution of productive forces, the transformation of nature, the most efficient use of natural resources subject to their reproduction and protection.

Summing up the results of the development of physical geography over the past 20 years, one cannot fail to note its transformation from a predominantly descriptive-cognitive science into a predominantly experimental-transformative science, developing the scientific foundations of purposeful change. natural conditions in the interests of the national economy.

The main task of modern geography throughout the world is now not so much assistance in the pioneering development of new lands and natural resources, as it was until recently, and above all, a comprehensive scientific service great work humanity in the diverse, more and more intensive use of already discovered natural resources and a radical change in the nature and economy of already developed regions and countries (Gerasimov, 1961). One of the most important specific problems of this change in nature is the complex change in climatic conditions, which is discussed in the new program of the CPSU.

- Source-

Development and transformation of the geographical environment. Moscow: Nauka, 1964

Post Views: 437

Geography is the most ancient branch of knowledge. Its roots go back much further than, for example, physics, chemistry, biology and other sciences.

Geography today is an understanding of the interrelationships of natural and social processes and phenomena, moreover, the ability to predict them. With modern geographical research in long-known territories, scientists make many new, sometimes amazing discoveries. But this is not the discovery of new objects, but the discovery of geographical patterns in nature and in society.

Geographical sciences have always had a practical purpose. In the past, they supplied society mainly background information. Now the practical role of geography is determined primarily by its participation in solving the problems of interaction between nature and society. The exacerbation of these problems once again proves that geographical research must have a preliminary character. The precedence of comprehensive geographic studies to the development and approval of any projects is especially important when human intervention in nature can have planetary consequences.

The ecological problem cannot be solved without the participation of scientists from the entire complex of geographical sciences. And since this problem is closely connected with other global problems of mankind, geography rises to a qualitative level. new level. Constructive geography comes to the fore, the task of which is not only to analyze the consequences of interference in nature, but also to predict them.

The whole difficulty of geographical research lies in the fact that not only complex natural phenomena and processes, but also no less complex patterns of economic development. A one-sided approach to their solution, ignoring the close relationships and became the reason for the emergence of the main problem of our time, called "the interaction of nature and society."

Human awareness of the complexity of this problem led to the emergence of such a research method as monitoring. Monitoring (from the Latin “one who reminds, warns”) is a complex information system, the main task of which is to monitor and assess the state natural environment experiencing anthropogenic influence. At present, the most developed part of monitoring is the observation of water and air pollution. Final goal monitoring - the development of measures for the rational (from the Latin "reasonable") use of natural resources, the preservation of natural balance.

The effectiveness of monitoring can be ensured only during research at three levels: local (local), regional (continents, oceans and their separate parts) and global (geographical envelope).

In the monitoring process, various scientific and technical methods and research tools are used. The traditional methods of collecting information - stationary and drifting scientific stations - also retain their importance. Observations in biosphere reserves are especially important, where human influence on the “standards” of natural complexes is monitored. Recently, however, the methods of space geography have become increasingly important. (Remember what it is.) They are based on remote comprehensive study of the geographic envelope from spacecraft.

The large amount of information that is obtained at the same time makes it possible not only to register, but also to predict certain changes that occur in nature during economic activity. Geographical forecasts are meteorological (for example, weather forecasts), hydrological - warning of floods, mudflows, etc.

But the most effective are complex forecasts, that is, those that provide for future changes in the natural complex. Neglect of just such a forecast, for example, led to the well-known environmental disasters of the Aral Sea, Kara-Bogaz-Gol in Central Asia, the Sahel zone in Africa and many others.

Monitoring of the natural environment requires the joint efforts of all countries of the world. None of them can behave in this situation according to the principle “my hut is on the edge, I don’t know anything.” Everything that happens in the geographical shell will affect each of us sooner or later.

Mankind finally realized this and began to create a global system for protecting the geographic shell on the basis of broad international cooperation.

The practical role of geography is determined by its participation in solving the problems of interaction between nature and society.

Assessment of the state of the geographic envelope is carried out with the help of monitoring.

The constructive role of geography is manifested in the geographical forecast.

The global nature of the problem of interaction between society and nature determines broad international cooperation.

GEOGRAPHY AND GLOBAL ISSUES

INTRODUCTION

In the course of the development of civilization, complex problems have repeatedly arisen before mankind, sometimes of a planetary nature. But still, it was a distant prehistory, a kind of "incubation period" of modern global problems. These problems manifested themselves in full measure already in the second half and, in particular, in the last quarter of the 20th century, that is, at the turn of two centuries and even millennia. They were brought to life by a whole complex of reasons that clearly manifested themselves precisely during this period.

The twentieth century is a turning point not only in world social history, but also in the very fate of mankind. The fundamental difference between the outgoing century and all previous history is that humanity has lost faith in its immortality. He became aware of the fact that his dominance over nature is not unlimited and is fraught with the death of himself. In fact, never before has humanity itself grown by a factor of 2.5 in the lifetime of only one generation, thereby increasing the strength of the “demographic press”. Never before has humanity entered a period of scientific and technological revolution, has not reached the post-industrial stage of development, has not opened the way to space. Never before had so many natural resources been required for its life support, and the waste it returned to the environment was also not so great. Never before has there been such a globalization of the world economy, such a unified world information system. Finally, never before cold war did not bring all of humanity so close to the verge of self-destruction. Even if it is possible to avoid a world nuclear war, the threat to the existence of mankind on Earth still remains, because the planet will not withstand the unbearable load that has been formed as a result of human activity. It is becoming more and more obvious that the historical form of human existence, which allowed him to create a modern civilization, with all its seemingly limitless possibilities and conveniences, has given rise to many problems that require cardinal solutions - and, moreover, without delay.

The purpose of this essay is to give modern ideas about the essence of global problems and the nature of their interrelations, about the role and tasks of science in general, and geography in particular, in developing a strategy and methodology for their solution.

SECTION 1. MODERN VIEW ON GLOBAL PROBLEMS

In progress historical development human activity, there is a breakdown of outdated technological methods, and with them the outdated social mechanisms of human interaction with nature. At the beginning of human history, predominantly adaptive (adaptive) mechanisms of interaction operated. Man obeyed the forces of nature, adapted to the changes taking place in it, changing his own nature in the process. Then, as the productive forces developed, the utilitarian attitude of man to nature, to another man, prevailed. The modern era raises the question of the transition to a new path of social mechanisms, which should be called co-evolutionary or harmonic. The global situation in which humanity finds itself reflects and expresses the general crisis of human consumer attitudes towards natural and social resources. Reason is pushing humanity to realize the vital need to harmonize connections and relationships in the global system "Man - Technology - Nature". In this regard, understanding the global problems of our time, their causes, interrelationships, and ways to solve them is of particular importance.

Global problems are called (Maksimova et al. 1981; and others) those problems that, firstly, concern all mankind, affecting the interests and destinies of all countries, peoples and social strata; secondly, they lead to significant economic and social losses, and in case of their aggravation, they can threaten the very existence of human civilization; thirdly, they require for their solution cooperation on a global scale, joint actions of all countries and peoples.

The above definition can hardly be considered sufficiently clear and unambiguous. Yes, and their classifications according to certain criteria are often too vague. From the point of view of a review of global problems, the most acceptable, in our opinion, is the classification of M.M. Maksimova et al. (1981), which combines all global problems into three groups:

1. Problems of economic and political interaction between states (intersocial). Among them, the most topical are: global security; globalization political power and structures of civil society; overcoming the technological and economic backwardness of developing countries and establishing a new international order.

2. Problems of interaction between society and nature (environmental and social). First of all it is: catastrophic pollution prevention environment; providing humanity with the necessary natural resources (raw materials, energy, food); exploration of the oceans and outer space.

3. Problems of relationships between people and society (sociocultural). The main ones : the problem of population growth; the problem of protecting and strengthening people's health; problems of education and cultural growth.

All these problems are generated by the disunity of mankind, the unevenness of its development. The conscious principle has not yet become the most important prerequisite for humanity as a whole. Negative results and consequences of uncoordinated, ill-considered actions of countries, peoples, individual people, accumulating on a global scale, have become a powerful objective factor in the world economic and social development. They have an increasingly significant impact on the development of individual countries and regions. Their solution involves the unification of the efforts of a large number of states and organizations at the international level. In order to have a clear idea of ​​the strategy and methodology for solving global problems, it is necessary to dwell on the characteristics of at least the most topical of them.

Intersocial problems

1.1.1. Global Security

IN last years this topic attracts Special attention in political and scientific circles, a huge number of special studies are devoted to it. This in itself is a testament to the awareness of the fact that the survival and possibility of the development of mankind are being threatened, such as it has never experienced in the past.

Indeed, in the old days, the concept of security was identified mainly with the defense of the country from aggression. Now, it also means protection from threats associated with natural disasters and man-made disasters, the economic crisis, political instability, the spread of subversive information, moral degradation, the impoverishment of the national gene pool, etc.

All these vast problems are rightfully the subject of concern both in individual countries and within the world community. It will be considered in one way or another in all parts of the research undertaken. At the same time, the military threat remains, and in some respects even increases.

The confrontation between the two superpowers and military blocs has brought the world close to a nuclear catastrophe. The end of this confrontation and the first steps towards real disarmament were undoubtedly the greatest achievement international politics. They proved that it is fundamentally possible to break out of the cycle that was inexorably pushing humanity into the abyss, to turn sharply from inciting hostility and hatred to attempts to understand each other, take into account mutual interests, and open the way to cooperation and partnership.

The results of this policy cannot be overestimated. Chief among them is the absence of an immediate danger of a world war with the use of means of mass destruction and the threat of the general extermination of life on Earth. But is it possible to assert that world wars are now and forever completely excluded from history, that such a danger will not arise again after some time due to the emergence of a new armed confrontation or the spontaneous expansion of a local conflict to world proportions, equipment failure, unauthorized launch of missiles with nuclear warheads , other cases of this kind? This is one of the most important global security issues today.

Another, no less important problem lies in the prospects for preventing armed conflicts, and where they broke out, in their localization and speedy settlement. Contrary to the opinion that spread at one time that the Clausewitz formula was outdated and war ceased to be a “means of continuing politics”, in contrast to all kinds of agreements and declarations on the need to exclude the use of force and the threat of force, in recent years there has been almost no day when no one on the planet there was a war. Are the armed conflicts in the Balkans, the Caucasus, Central Asia a passing consequence of the collapse of the bipolar system, do they end a bygone era or, on the contrary, open a chain of new wars for the creation of independent states, territorial conquests and spheres of influence?

The next fundamental question concerns the problem of armaments. Obviously, it is impossible to curb war, let alone exclude it completely from the life of modern society, as long as significant nuclear and chemical arsenals continue to be preserved, mountains of so-called conventional, moreover, constantly improved weapons are produced, remain at the same level in most countries, and in in some cases even increased military spending. Militarism has become a "cancerous tumor" of mankind. Suffice it to say that a quarter world scientists involved in preparations for war. The military-industrial complex diverts huge labor, material and financial resources from constructive goals. Nuclear powers have accumulated such an amount of fissile materials that it is enough to repeatedly destroy all life on the planet. And finally, military spending is the main obstacle to a positive solution to all global problems.

Introduction

Geography is one of ancient sciences serving humanity for thousands of years. Therefore, geography is often called a fundamental science. But the fundamental nature of geography should not be in conflict with its actual tasks. Modern geography is a whole system of sciences, one of the most important tasks of which is to study the processes of interaction between nature and society in order to scientifically substantiate the rational use of natural resources and maintain favorable conditions for human life on our planet.

Dialectically interconnected processes of integration and differentiation are intensifying in the system of geographical sciences. Under the influence of these processes, the integrity of a unified geography increases and, at the same time, particular natural and socio-geographic directions deepen. The process of differentiation of science is inevitable and, on the whole, has progressive significance. But there is another side to it - the danger of centrifugal tendencies, the loss of a holistic view of nature inherent in geography and the interaction of nature and society.

Thus, in a number of related sciences, we observe a certain tendency towards convergence and integration with geography. This is expressed in the formation of a number of new frontier disciplines with a pronounced geographical character.

To write this work, I studied the works of K.K. Markov, V.P. Maksakovsky, A.G. Anuchin and others, during the study of which I was able to answer some of my questions and once again convinced myself of the significance, fascination and necessity of geographical science.

1. Differentiation and integration in geography.

In all sciences, there is a complex and objective process of their differentiation (singling out their sections, narrower branches and sub-sectors, up to individual teachings, theories, etc.) and integration (combining individual sections, branches, sub-sectors, teachings and theories of science into one whole, the formation of their unity). Both of these seemingly mutually exclusive processes are associated with the requirements of social practice, with specialization and concentration both in the industrial and non-industrial spheres, with the improvement of research methods, and with scientific and technological progress. Science scholars distinguish among the internal laws of the development of science lawdifferentiation(each new stage in the development of sciences depends on more advanced methods of research and leads to the "splitting" of the fundamental sciences into sections that study their own range of objects) and law of integration(each new discovery is accompanied by new knowledge and requires a broad aspect of related research.

The process of differentiation of science is inevitable and, on the whole, has progressive significance. But there is another side to it - the danger of centrifugal tendencies, the loss of a holistic view of nature inherent in geography and the interaction of nature and society. This process, common to all sciences, also embraced geographical science. The differentiation of science occurs largely spontaneously, is the result of requirements and practice, under its "pressure". The integration process needs more targeted actions of large scientific organizations, state support, and international recognition. To implement integration in science, very large, strong and widely educated scientists are needed. In geography, such scientists in recent times have become N.N.

The issue of geographic integration was raised at the XXIII International Geographical Congress "the unity of geography cannot now be understood as the unity in the head of the researcher." New approaches related to the study of systems and structures, modeling, etc., open up new opportunities for geographic integration. But under all conditions, geography should encompass in mutual connection nature, population, and economy.

Differentiation and integration in geography are sometimes considered as a kind of analogue to the concepts of "analysis" and "geographical synthesis". Integration necessarily requires the implementation of geographical synthesis. But at the same time, it would be wrong to think that differentiation, the separation of various branches of geography, leads science only along the path of analysis and excludes the use of geographical synthesis. Geographical synthesis is natural both in separate rather large sections of geography and on the edges of smaller subdivisions.

The processes of differentiation and integration in geography are understood, analysed, explained, directed and predicted based on one or another theoretical basis, based on the specific needs of a particular social system.

Each of the geographical disciplines has its own material object of study in the form of a spatial (territorial) system: relief system (geomorphology), water systems (hydrology), life systems (biogeography), settlement systems, cities, economic objects (economic geography), natural territorial complexes (physical geography), etc. For many years, geographers have been studying territorial systems of a different nature. Considering these territorial systems as wholes requires internal integration, or an integrated approach in the study of different objects in each of the geographical disciplines, since these objects are connected in reality.

Interdisciplinary integration is becoming increasingly important, in which the efforts of two or more geographical disciplines are combined to solve a complex problem. In a number of cases, young, progressive, practically important and rapidly developing disciplines are created on their contacts. Interdisciplinary integration naturally goes beyond the boundaries of geographical science, as a result of which such progressive disciplines as agroclimatology, bioclimatology, biogeocenology, ethnogeography, historical landscape studies, etc. appear. The processes of interdisciplinary integration of geographical sciences are of particular importance in the implementation of specific research. Interdisciplinary integration has found its expression in the compilation of numerous synthetic maps. These maps show in interconnection the most various objects nature, population, economy.

Most of all questions and doubts are caused by the issue of general geographical integration, i.e. an organic holistic association of its natural and socio-economic branches - a general geographical synthesis. General geographic integration is expressed in complex geographical expeditions with many specialists in geographical and other sciences, united by a single goal and a common idea of ​​implementing geographical synthesis in practice. Geographical synthesis (or, what is the same, geographical integration) is the highest stage of the complexity of geographical research, at which the unity of geographical knowledge is achieved, a new result necessary for practice is obtained in the form of holistic and correct recommendations on ways to use and protect nature in the process of building optimal territorial systems of settlement and economy. Geographic synthesis is very difficult. This explains both its slow progress and the objections to it. Real integration processes in our science arise only when key problems are identified, the solution of which requires the combination of experience and knowledge accumulated by different geographical disciplines. One of the results of integration has become complex national and regional geographic atlases, characterizing in most cases the main features of nature, population, economy, culture and other aspects of the life of countries and regions.

When individual supporters of “torn geography” (as V.A. Anuchin called opponents of the unity of geographical science) attack a single geography, they fight with windmills - nowhere in the world is there a geographical science that would not have many branches. The sectional structure of modern international geographical congresses largely reflects the existing differentiation of science. Under the guise of denying a unified geography, some work is being done to "expel" economic geography from geography in the form in which it has developed historically. Some scientists believe that geographical science is only physical geography, and some economic geographers meet them, arguing that economic geography is an economic science and does not belong to geography at all or is only organizationally included in it.

The main argument of "torn" geography is that physical and economic geography discover different objective laws, study different forms of the movement of matter, have different methods and goals, different "libraries", different interests of specialists.

The sciences can be divided into three groups: 1. analytical and abstract sciences, studying each corresponding form of movement; 2. synthesizing sciences that study various relationships between bodies and phenomena of reality at different levels of combination of forms of matter movement; 3. integrating sciences. Integration occurs at four levels: physical and mechanical processes, processes of inanimate nature, processes of the biosphere, processes of the noosphere.

The group of sciences integrating reality at the highest (noospheric) level of development includes geographical science as a whole. It cannot be torn apart. Geographical science necessarily requires the study of the connection of phenomena in space - time, the synthesis of phenomena and processes and their integration.

Differentiation of geographical science is necessary - it allows you to see the "deep" processes of interaction in the noosphere, in its different spatial systems. Integration makes it possible not only to superimpose these systems in four-dimensional space-time, but also to rise to the identification of integral systems and structures and to the discovery of the integral laws of geographical science.

2. The problem of integrity in geographical science

The question of the unity or integrity of the system of geographical sciences is one of the most complex and debatable.

In the West, especially in the USA, the prevailing view is that geography is a single, or unitary, monistic science that cannot be divided into physical and economic. The imaginary unity of geography is achieved by them at the cost of the extreme impoverishment of science, the rejection of a deep study of laws, the idea of ​​a natural complex, and the modern achievements of particular geographical sciences. Unified American Geography is a purely descriptive, chorological discipline.

Geography, in essence, has never been a single science. Its position on the border between the natural and social sciences has long been the cause of the dualism between its physical and geographical branches, on the one hand, and the direction of regional studies, anthropogeography, human geography, on the other.

In Soviet science, the independence of physical geography and economic geography as branches of knowledge dealing with different objects and different regularities is not disputed by anyone. Some experts believe that in addition to these two groups of sciences, there should be some common geography uniting them, while others say that such a common superstructure is impossible.

Let us first consider the main arguments of the supporters of a unified geography. The strongest argument would be the existence of a common subject of study for all geographical sciences. It was supposed to consider the territory as such an object. But the geographer is not interested in an abstract territory, but in well-defined objects associated with the territory. Geographers of all times and all countries have always studied the earth's surface. This is true to some extent, but inaccurate, because. the geographer is not interested in the surface of the Earth as a geometric concept, but in phenomena, processes, bodies, material systems associated with this surface, and not all, but only geographical ones. It turns out that these traditionally geographical objects are qualitatively very heterogeneous and develop according to different laws. Hence the inevitable differentiation of geography into independent branches. It is impossible to combine these industries only on the basis that the objects of interest to them are located on the earth's surface, or on the territory, because in this case, the sphere of geography will be limitless - there are too many all kinds of objects scattered on the earth's surface and too many all sorts of events are unfolding on it.

According to another version, the geographic envelope should serve as a common subject for physical and economic geography. [Anuchin, 1972] This is a natural system. Although human society is physically located inside the geographical envelope and interacts with it, certain laws are inherent in it, which in no way fit into the framework of the laws of development of the geographical envelope. Society has its own system of internal connections, which is fundamentally different from natural connections operating in a geographical shell, and requires special study.

There is an opinion that the general subject of study for all geographical sciences is the geographical environment. This concept does not have a single definition. Usually, the geographical environment refers to the immediate natural environment of human society. The geographical environment is part of nature and therefore must be studied by the natural sciences. The situation does not change at all because the geographical environment has been greatly changed by man and is saturated with the results of his labor. In addition, any "environment" is a relative concept. In this case, we mean the environment for the development of society, the environment of production. Consequently, society and production cannot enter their environment, they seem to oppose it, although they interact with it.

udk 910.1 V. A. Shalnev

progress and problems of modern

geography at the turn of the century

Successes and challenges of modern

geography at the turn of the century

The article considers the main stages in the history of the development of geographical ideas, reflecting integration approaches in the theory of geography, and the complexity of building a theory of general geography.

Key words: unified geography, zonal-complex concept, anthropogeography, chorological concept, theoretical geography, geoecology, general geography, geoversum.

The article describes the main stages of the history of geographical ideas, reflecting integration approaches in the theory of geography, and the complexity of constructing a theory of general geography.

Keywords: single geography, zonal-integrated concept anthropogeography, chorological concept, theoretical geography, geoecology, general geography, geoversum.

Any science as a form of social consciousness goes through a difficult path of development from the descriptive stage to the stage of theoretical and methodological understanding. The history of any science is not only its achievements and successes, but, first of all, the people who created this history. Their thoughts, feelings, experiences, doubts, searches. This is the aura of that era in which they lived and worked, which they managed to “absorb” and convey in a concentrated manner in their deeds and heritage. V. I. Vernadsky wrote that “each generation of scientific researchers seeks and finds in the history of science a reflection of the scientific currents of its time.”

Geography is an “omnivorous” science, and for several thousand years it has accumulated a huge material of scientific and non-scientific facts that it could not comprehend and, as B. Akhmadulina wrote, “sculpt a heavy tangible object out of the moonlight”. It is impossible to recall in one work all the "sowers" and "seekers of truth" who worked in the field of "geographical fields". Our task here is more modest: firstly, to consider the main achievements in the field of integration approaches of theoretical and methodological understanding and the heritage of geography as a science;

secondly, to recall once again those great geographers on whose shoulders the modern building of geography rests, decrepit in the fluidity of time and requiring major repairs in the area of ​​​​its foundation - general geography, the integral ideas of its constituent parts.

There are several main stages and integration trends in the history of geography:

Creation of a unified (undivided) geography that described the surface of the Earth, its individual regions

and countries. The accumulated vast factual material required its generalization, and such a way was found in the creation of cartography and maps with their own language and symbols. It was a great time in the history of geography. Cartographic models-images of the Earth's surface, prototypes of future GIS were created. However, such geography could answer only two questions: what is being described and where is the object of description. The explanatory part (why and how?) was absent from it. The spatial approach was realized only in the ideological understanding of the three-term global space: macrocosm (divine layers), mesocosm (terrestrial nature) and microcosm (spiritual essence of man). The dominant feature in such a space was geographical determinism;

important event late XIX century and a great contribution to world geography was the Russian zonal-complex concept, at the origins of which stood V. V. Dokuchaev. His ideas were realized in the original Russian landscape-geographical school. This was preceded by the emergence of the concept of a geographical complex, which was introduced by A. N. Krasnov for natural objects, where the key to the essence of geography was the “interaction of components”. Later N. N. Kolosovsky will formulate the concept of the production complex. The foundations of landscape science were laid by L. S. Berg, G. N. Vysotsky, G. F. Morozov and others. L. S. Berg combined the doctrine of landscape with the concept of zoning by publishing Landscape Zones of the USSR. Then the work of N. A. Solntsev and A. G. Isachenko gave a serious impetus to field landscape research and landscape mapping of morphological units. A process direction has also taken shape. B. B. Polynov laid the foundations of geochemistry, and D. L. Armand - the geophysics of landscapes. The works of S. V. Kalesnik played a decisive role in overcoming

gap between general geography and landscape science [Isachenko, 2000]. The strengthening of synthesis in physical geography was facilitated by the teachings on the geosystem of V. B. Sochava and the landscape sphere of F. N. Milkov. The objects of study of physical geography were also clearly defined. The general object is a geographic envelope. Private objects - a set of individual regional TPK (from the geographical zone, the mainland to the landscape), as well as morphological units of the landscape, studied by typological methods;

An attempt to be realized in anthropogeography, where with the help of biological determinism and possibilism

the role of the natural factor in the life of a person (mankind) was considered. This was most clearly reflected in LN Gumilyov's theory of ethnogenesis, when the landscape forms the ethnos as the substance of the biosphere. Here, the natural-ecological and natural-social feature of culture (K. Ritter's line), ethnic cultural genesis is also manifested. This explained the mechanism of arrangement of natural space by man within the framework of the concept of geographical determinism. In the future, with the development of trends in the globalization of society, the socio-regulatory part of culture, its spiritual, mental and intellectual components become the leading one. A new paradigm about the natural-social object of geography begins to form, called cultural landscape(K. Sauer, O. Schluter, Yu. A. Vedenin), the mechanism for understanding which is the processes of cultural genesis of an industrial society and the position of anthropocentrism with the leading role of the laws of development of society. However, on the whole, these ideas led to a consolidation in geography only in the form of biogeography (the doctrine of the biosphere and the natural landscape based on the ideas of vitalism) and the doctrine of the sociosphere;

There was a change in methodological positions in geography associated with the rejection of geographical and biological determinisms. This led to the other extreme - indeterminism, when the free will of man became dominant. In social philosophy and, as a result, in geography, the ideas of anthropocentrism began to assert themselves. Man entered the arena of history as a force competing with the forces of nature. In the middle of the 20th century, the concept of "technological optimism" appeared, at the origins of which was the slogan of transforming

childbirth. In geography, the chorological concept (A. Gettner, R. Hartshorne) is becoming popular, associated with the description of a multitude of individual filled spaces and localities. At the end of the 20th century, it was transformed into a post-chorological concept (D.N. Zamyatin, E.L. Feibusovich, B.B. Rodoman, A.N. Lastochkin, M.M. Golubchik) with an application in the form of theoretical geography. Its basis was geotopological determinism, where the knowledge of a complex object is reduced to an extremely simplified model (geotopological reductionism). The chorological anthropocentrism of R. Hartshorne also affected the views of Soviet (Russian) representatives of social geography, who, exaggerating the role of human activity and scientific and technological progress, considered social patterns in the system "nature - society" determining, therefore, their entire geography turns into humanities;

the development of domestic socio-economic geography in the second half of the twentieth century was greatly influenced by the ideas of the Anglo-American school, which reflected " revolutionary events": quantitative revolution (quantification), theoretical revolution (avant-garde geomodernism), the creation of radical geography, etc. This contributed to the use systems approach, mathematical methods, modeling methods in geographical research and attempts to create theoretical geography. However, an unambiguous approach to the foundations of theoretical geography has not developed. Two approaches have been identified: first, in a broad sense, when general theory geography is understood as the totality of all theories, teachings, concepts modern geography. This approach is summarized in the work of V.P. Maksakovskii (1998). Secondly, in a narrow sense, when theoretical geography is understood as a general theory of geographic spatial systems. This direction was realized by the efforts of V. Bunge, P. Haggett, V. M. Gokhman, B. L. Gurevich and others in the block of social and geographical sciences, in particular, the theory of location and the spatial aspect of human activity. Yu. G. Saushkin wrote about theoretical geography as a new science that explores spatial systems at the most abstract level (1976). According to B. B. Rodoman, this geography constructs landscape networks, their interweaving at the level of civilizations and the biosphere (1999). He associates it with metageogra-

fiey. However, the consolidation of geographical ideas did not happen, since there was no place for physical geography in it. R. Johnston noted this with regret, saying that there are fewer and fewer points of contact between sociogeography and physical geography (1988);

The emergence of unifying trends in geography with the identification of an ecological approach that gained popularity in the second half of the 20th century. The appearance of geoecology was preceded by a lively discussion with a large number of participants. However, unfortunately, not professional geographers played on this field. In addition, without the presence of a theory of general geography, it was impossible to create a qualitative theoretical foundation for geoecology. Therefore, in foreign geography, the “flux” has become social ecology. Russian geoecologists made an attempt to adapt geoecological ideas to the general geography heritage. The regional concept of the territorial organization of society did not help either, since the geoecological paradigm had not yet been implemented in its fundamental provisions, such as the doctrine of the geographical environment;

a historical review of the achievements of individual scientists in the development of the theory and methodology of geography led to the surprising conclusion that the most interesting ideas and new conceptual positions in geography were most often formulated by scientists who did not have a basic geographical education(I. Kant, V. V. Dokuchaev, L. S. Berg, A. A. Grigoriev, V. I. Vernadsky, V. B. Sochava, N. N. Baransky, N. N. Kolosovsky, etc.) . Apparently, the education system that developed in the universities of the world and Russia (USSR) in the 20th century with in-depth immersion in highly specialized areas with large amounts of information to remember does not justify itself. “A mediocre student of a special class of the lyceum,” wrote A. de Saint-Exupery, “knows more about nature and its laws than Descartes and Pascal. However, is such a student capable of thinking like them? Modern curricula in the specialty "Geography" provide extensive knowledge about the branch sciences and integral disciplines of certain groups of sciences (general geography, biogeography, general socio-economic geography), but do not provide integral knowledge about the general object and subject of geography. The final course "Theory and Methodology" does not solve these problems either.

geographic science” [Golubchik et al., 2005[. The theoretical foundations of geography outlined in it did not compete with the biospheric concept, which is widespread in the world community, since they do not reveal the fundamental foundations of the geographical approach;

One cannot but be alarmed by the trends in the loss of the culture of scientific discussions in the geographical community, their openness and uncompromisingness, the growth of corporate approaches and the decrease in professional exactingness to quality. scientific research. V. S. Preobrazhensky wrote about this at the end of the 20th century: “Science will not survive if it avoids professional exactingness in assessments ... in an atmosphere of complacency (excellently reflected in the reviews of opponents and parent organizations) ... You can’t escape decay ... Dullness not only a genetic, but also a social phenomenon ... And the genetic code of social memory is formed not by someone, but by us with our tolerance for poor quality of work (if only “there are more numbers ...”)” .

General geography can become the core of new integral approaches [Isachenko, 2000; Shalnev, 2000, 2013; Lastochkin, 2008; Trofimov and Sharygin, 2008; Rozanov, 2010] with its global and regional aspects. Its qualitative content should answer difficult questions fundamental provisions of the theory of the system of geographical sciences:

1. What is geographical reality or geographic world? What are the main stages of cognition of this reality?

2. How were the worldview positions of philosophy reflected in the theory of geographical sciences when changing social formations from the standpoint of the categories of interaction, the whole and the part, as well as the general, singular and special?

3. Is it possible to form in the scientific community an idea of ​​an idealized limiting object (image) and its particular objects of study in geography from the positions of the evolutionary approach in complicating their structure?

4. What are the features of the subject of study of geography, taking into account evolutionary changes in the structure of the ultimate object of general geography and the characteristics of the interaction of man (mankind) and nature?

5. What is the role of activity approaches and processes of cultural genesis of society in the formation of a complex modern global geospace and its structures of different hierarchies?

6. What general scientific and geographical theoretical and methodological foundations are important in the creation of general geography?

7. What are the difficulties in constructing the theory of general geography, its categorical apparatus and laws.

The central position in this list of problems is occupied by the concept of the general object of geography. There have been many attempts to designate such an object of study in geography. V. I. Vernadsky proposed the noosphere for these purposes, E. Reclus, L. I. Mechnikov, N. A. Gvozdetsky, N. K. Mukitanov - the geographical environment, G. P. Vysotsky - the geosociosphere, V. M. Kotlyakov and V. S. Preobrazhensky called the geographical shell. In our opinion, such an object can be the geoverseum, or the geographical shell of human history. Such an object of general geography is the geographical reality of the planet Earth, a complex global geosystem:

Emerging and developing in spatio-temporal parameters solar system and the planet Earth, but limited from them by the environment of its geospace, its system of circulation of energy, matter and information;

Having its own vertical (set of geospheres) and horizontal (set of territorial geosystems) structure;

Possessing unique properties due to the presence of living matter and the culture of human society, which change its natural essence and create a modern geographical picture of the world (Shalnev, 2000, 2013).

From the standpoint of philosophical and mythological understanding

geoversum - this is the space of the Earth, where nature has created an earthly paradise, and humanity has created purgatory and hell.

And yet, summing up the discussion about the trends of integration processes in geography, I would like to think about geography with optimism and recall the words of V. S. Preobrazhensky: “The romance of difficult and distant roads, the romance of a field fire, has not disappeared in geography. New things are added - the joy of the elegance of the formula, the romance of reflection, the theoretical search. The era of great theoretical discoveries in geography is ahead” (1988).

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Theory and methodology of geographical science. M.: Publishing house Vlados, 2005.

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3. Lastochkin A. N. The purpose of general geography in the modern world // Geography and geoecological aspects of nature and society. St. Petersburg: Publishing house of St. Petersburg State University, 2008.

4. Maksakovskiy V. P. Geographical culture. M.: Publishing house Vlados, 1998.

5. Preobrazhensky V. S. Being a geographer // Newspaper geography, 1998. No. 23.

6. Preobrazhensky VV I am a geographer. M.: Izd-vo GEOS, 2001.

7. Rodoman B. B. Theoretical areas and networks. Essays on theoretical geography. Smolensk: Oikumene Publishing House, 1999.

8. Rozanov L. L. General geography. Moscow: Drofa Publishing House, 2010.

9. Saushkin Yu. G. History and methodology of geographical science: a course of lectures. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1976.

10. Trofimov A. M., Sharygin M. D. General geography (questions of theory and methodology). Perm, 2008.

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12. Shalnev V. A. History, theory and methodology of geography. Stavropol: Izd-vo SKFU, 2013.

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cue federal university”, Doctor of Geography, Professor of the Department of Physical Geography and Landscape Science, tel.: 8-962-44705-24, e-mail: [email protected]

Shalnev Viktor Alexandrovich, North Caucasus Federal University, doctor of geographical sciences, professor in the Department of physical geography and landscape