In contrast to the personality theories listed above, which include both certain assumptions about the nature of a person and the principles of his functioning, and clear ideas about the core and peripheral structures of personality, factor models are based on statistical approach. The essence of this approach lies in the fact that at the first stage, observations are made on many people. The observational data are then quantified. For example, height is coded in centimeters, weight is coded in kilograms, ability is coded in points scored on relevant tests, and so on. Then the correlation coefficient between the variables is calculated. A high correlation coefficient indicates that the variables appear together, a low coefficient indicates that the presence of one variable excludes the manifestation of another, and a zero coefficient means that no relationship has been identified. For example, it may turn out that foot length correlates positively with a person's height and negatively with female gender. This means that a person who wears a large shoe size is more likely to be a tall man. Related variables are combined into factors. Thus, factor analysis allows you to reduce a large number of variables to a smaller number of more fundamental values ​​(the contribution of each variable to a particular factor is also calculated). For example, we found a high positive correlation between scores in Russian language, literature, fluency, and memorization speed. foreign words. The resulting factor can be called factor B (verbal abilities). Similarly, with the help of factor analysis, some authors tried to identify the main personality traits, to which the whole variety of human manifestations can be reduced.

Personality model according to R. B. Cattell

Raymond Bernard Cattell (1905–1998) believed that the best way to capture the whole person is to learn the vocabulary. chesky composition of the language. He suggested that every word denoting a particular property of a person potentially represents a personality trait. It turned out that in English language 18 thousand words are associated with a description of a person. Excluding synonyms, rarely used and obsolete words, the scientist compiled a list of 171 words. Cattell defines a personality trait as "what makes it possible to predict a person's actions in a certain situation." It is important to note that Cattell began his work without any specific "model" of personality, i.e. he did not make assumptions about the essence of the personality (core) and the driving forces of its development. In fact, he used the reverse strategy: describing the periphery of the personality, he hoped to make an ascent to the core. In this regard, the scientist made a division into superficial (those that can be observed) and basic (deep) personality traits. By factoring out the surface features, he hoped to discover the main ones. Cattell's logic was this: if a few surface traits appear as a group, then there is some common trait behind them. For his developments, the scientist used three types of data:

• 1) data obtained from human observation vivo (L-data). An example of L-data is information about how many jobs a person has changed or feedback about him from colleagues in the service;
• 2) data obtained through questionnaires (Q-data). For example, the answer to the question "Do dark thoughts often visit you?" are typical Q-data;
• 3) data obtained through objective tests (for example, the number of tasks solved). This information constitutes the T-data corpus.

As a result of factor analysis, Cattell identified 35 primary traits, of which 23 are characteristics of normal people, and 12 are pathological abnormalities. By eliminating seven of the 23 normal primary traits (they are called the "seven missing factors"), Cattell created one of the most popular personality measurement tools to date, called Cattell's 16-factor personality questionnaire (16 PF). The primary features measured by the 16 PF questionnaire are presented in Table. 10.4.

Table 10.4

Normal Primary Core Personality Traits as Measured by the 16 PF Questionnaire

* Cattell came up with original (non-translatable) names for the resulting factors, because he wanted them to be considered out of touch with the usual meaning of elephant.

Since the questionnaire is designed to quickly diagnose personality traits, it includes Q-data that have been tested for robustness with other types of data.

Hierarchical model of personality G. Eysenck. Using factor analysis, Hans Jurgen Eysenck (1916-1997) created his four-level hierarchical model of personality. The scientist suggested that the lower level is the level specific actions or thoughts, it can be quite random and does not indicate personality traits. The second level is the level habitual actions or thoughts, it is more diagnostic of the personality as a whole. The third level is personality traits. Eysenck defines a trait as "an important, relatively constant, personal attribute." The trait represents bundle of interrelated habitual reactions. This level roughly coincides with the 35 primary features in Cattell's concept. Fourth, highest level, - This type level. The type is formed from several interconnected traits. Essentially, types in Eysenck's concept are the results of factorization of primary traits.

All three factors identified by Eysenck are orthogonal (i.e., the measurement results practically do not correlate with each other). This means that each of the types reflects an independent characteristic of the personality or one of its dimensions. Taken together, they form a three-dimensional space. Each person can be characterized by a point in a given three-dimensional space, the coordinate axes of which are the factors extraversion - introversion, neuroticism - stability and psychotism - "Super-I" (Fig. 10.4).

Rice. 10.4.

Factor Extraversion/Introversion (E) on the positive pole includes sociability, liveliness, impulsiveness, optimism, activity, dominance, self-confidence, carelessness, courage on the positive pole. The negative pole of this factor includes isolation, pessimism, passivity, self-doubt, thoughtfulness, good control over behavior. Eysenck believing that main reason differences between extroverts and introverts - different levels of excitability of the reticular formation of the brain (more on individual differences in the functioning nervous system see sect. 10.6.2). Because extroverts have lower levels, they are less sensitive to sensory stimulation. Extroverts seek thrills to increase arousal, while introverts, on the contrary, try to avoid situations that can cause too much arousal. It can be predicted that extroverts will enjoy activities such as fast driving, skydiving, travel, and stimulant use. Introverts, on the other hand, will prefer quiet activities such as reading, walking, etc.

Neuroticism/Stability Factor (N) at the positive pole includes high anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, a tendency to strong reactions to stress, frequent pain of a psychogenic nature. On the negative pole of this factor is low anxiety, high self-esteem, resistance to stress.

Factor Psychoticism / "Super-I" (P) includes egocentrism, emotional coldness, aggressiveness, hostility to others, suspicion and often a tendency to antisocial behavior at the positive pole. The negative pole of this factor describes the tendency to cooperate with other people, pro-social moral standards, the desire to care.

Since the Eysenck factors are independent, the personality as a whole can be described only by taking into account the contribution of all three factors. Thus, the personality of a person, schematically represented in Fig. 10.2 is characterized by high levels of extraversion, emotional stability, and a strong Superego. In other words, this is an active, sociable person, not inclined to worry over trifles, with high self-esteem and strong moral principles.

Unlike Cattell, Eysenck reasoned not only inductively (generalizing empirical observations), but also deductively (concrete observations were guided by theoretical constructions). He established four criteria necessary for a factor to be accepted:

• 1) psychometric confirmation of the existence of a factor;
• 2) the factor must be inherited;
• 3) the factor must make sense from the point of view of the theory;
• 4) the factor must be socially appropriate; be related to social phenomena, such as achievements in the professional field, the stability of marriage, etc.

As can be seen from the second criterion, Eysenck placed special emphasis on the biological prerequisites of personality, believing that the three types he singled out are genetically determined and lifetime experience does not have a great influence on them. It can be assumed that Eysenck's types are formal characteristics of the functioning of the personality, therefore they describe, rather, not the core or periphery of the personality itself, but its individual impersonal prerequisites. In this regard, Eysenck's theory of personality is often referred to as a concept of temperament (see below).

Thus, descriptions of personality as a set of individual (sometimes correlating with each other) traits reflect generalized, relatively stable, instrumental ways of responding to different classes of situations.

Experimental studies of personality abroad were started by G. Eizenk and R. Kettel. merit G. Eysenka was the development of methods and procedures for mathematical processing of observational data, surveys and analysis of documents collected about a person from various sources.

G.Allport laid the foundations of a new theory of personality, called the "theory of traits", and R.Kettel , using the method of G. Eysenck, gave personality research, conducted within the framework of the theory of traits, an experimental character. He introduced the procedure pilot study personality method of factor analysis, singled out, described and identified a number of real factors, or personality traits. He also laid the foundations of modern personality testology, having developed one of the first personality tests, named after him (Kettel's 16-factor test).

Of all the definitions of personality proposed at the beginning of the experimental period for developing the problem of personality, the one given by G. Allport turned out to be the most successful: personality there is an individually unique set of psycho-physiological systems that is formed in vivo - personality traits that determine thinking and behavior that is unique for a given person.

G. Allport and R. Kettel began the development of a theory called trait theories . According to this theory, people differ from each other in the set and degree of development of their individual, independent features, and a description of a holistic personality can be obtained on the basis of a testological or other, less rigorous examination of it, based, for example, on a generalization of life observations different people behind this person.

A less rigorous way of identifying and evaluating personality traits is based on the study of the language, the choice of words-concepts from it, with the help of which a person is described from different angles. By reducing the list of selected words to the necessary and sufficient minimum (by excluding synonyms from their number), a complete list of all possible personality traits is compiled for their subsequent expert evaluation in a given person. G. Allport went in this way to the construction of a methodology for studying personality traits.

The second way to assess personality traits involves the use factor analysis- a complex method of modern statistics, which allows minimizing many different indicators and personality assessments obtained as a result of introspection, survey, life observations of people. The result is a set of statistically independent factors that are considered individual traits of a person's personality.

With the help of this method, R. Kettel managed to identify 16 different personality traits. Each of them received a double name characterizing the degree of its development: strong and weak. Based on the experimentally identified set of traits, R. Kettel built a 16-factor personality questionnaire.

The Cattell questionnaire contains more than 100 questions that are asked to the subjects; they answer in the affirmative or in the negative. Then the answers are grouped in accordance with the "key" (method of processing the results) and the severity of one or another factor is determined, indicating the development of the corresponding personality trait. Then the so-called "personality profile" of the subject is drawn, including his assessments for each factor.

The trait theory has some pretty serious flaws. Firstly, The identified set of personality traits significantly depends on the quality of the source material subjected to factor analysis. Using various initial data, researchers receive unequal lists of factors. Some believe that for a complete psychological characterization of a person it is enough to have only 5 traits, others argue that 20 is not enough for this.

Secondly, based on the knowledge of personality traits, it turned out to be almost impossible to accurately predict human behavior even in situations that are meaningfully related to the identified traits.

Theories of personality traits- a direction in psychology based on the idea that people are predisposed to behave in a certain way in different situations. This kind of predisposition, formed in the process of development of a particular personality, is usually called traits within the framework of this direction.

The first expanded concept of personality traits was developed at the turn of the 30s - 40s. XX century, already mentioned in the article on the humanistic direction in psychology by the American psychologist G. Allport. According to his ideas, a personality trait not only determines a certain behavioral response to a wide range of external stimuli that are subjectively perceived as similar, but is also a motivator that encourages a person to seek and create phenomena of the external world (for example, social situations) that are adequate to the existing trait.

G. Allport divided traits into common, or measurable, which many people possess to a greater or lesser extent, and individual, or morphological, unique for each individual and most fully, from the point of view of G. Allport, reflecting the characteristics of his personality. Later, developing his theory, G. Allport began to use the term "personality traits" only to refer to common features, and for individual traits he introduced a new term - individual dispositions. G. Allport distinguished three types of individual dispositions: cardinal, central and secondary.

Cardinal dispositions are the most generalized, pervasive (all-penetrating) personality trait that determines a person’s entire life. It is endowed with very few people who, as a rule, become widely known precisely because of the presence of a cardinal disposition. Moreover, the names of these people become household names for a certain lifestyle or behavioral strategies, for example, Don Juan, Thomas the Unbeliever, Marquis de Sade, etc.

Traits can stand out in all areas of personality - in personality, character, intelligence, but we will focus in this chapter on the study of personality traits. G. Allport identified the following eight main characteristics of personality traits.

1. A personality trait is not only a nominal, but also a real designation. That is, they really exist in people, and are not the result of theoretical calculations.

2. A personality trait is a more general quality than a habit. Habits, uniting, merge into traits.

3. Personality trait is the driving element of behavior. That is, traits incline a person to create or look for situations in which they can manifest themselves.

4. The existence of traits can be established empirically. And although they are not directly observable, psychological methods allow them to be discovered.

5. A personality trait is only relatively independent of other traits. Overlapping, they manifest themselves in even more generalized characteristics of behavior.

6. A personality trait is not synonymous with moral or social evaluation. And the negative pole of the expression of the trait is not always “bad”, and the positive one is not always “good”.

7. A trait can be considered either in the context of the individual in whom it is found, or in terms of its prevalence in society.

8. The inconsistency of some actions with a trait is not proof of its absence in a person.

Central dispositions are stable characteristics well recognizable by other people, which make it possible to describe the personality quite fully and accurately. Based on the results of his research, G. Allport came to the conclusion that the number of central dispositions for each individual varies from five to ten. The central dispositions are the most universal and, in terms of content, are close to personality traits.

Secondary dispositions are less stable and less recognizable compared to the central ones. These usually include taste preferences, situational short-term attitudes, etc.

According to his convictions, G. Allport was close to representatives of the humanistic direction. Because of this, in his works he anticipated many principles humanistic psychology. In particular, G. Allport insisted on the need to study mentally healthy people, introducing the concept of a mature personality. From his point of view, the behavior of a mature subject is autonomous and conscious, while a personally immature, neurotic individual is guided by unconscious motives associated with childhood experiences. According to G. Allport, a mature personality develops in the process of formation, which continues throughout human life. He was also committed to the principle of holism, considering a healthy person as an integrated whole of heterogeneous parts. The organizing and unifying principle in human nature, which at the same time is the main driving force in the development of the individual, was designated by G. Allport as proprium.

Developing the theory of traits, G. Allport made a significant contribution to the development social psychology, in particular, in the study of the problem of adaptation and social influence. His works "The Nature of Bias" and "The Psychology of Rumors" have become classic works on this issue. Having become interested in the problem of values ​​in the context of studying a mature personality, he, on the basis of the typology of values ​​​​of E. Spranger, developed the "Test for the Study of Values" back in 1931, modifications of which are still used in organizational psychology.

Further development of trait theories is associated with the work of G. Eysenck and R. Cattell. If G. Allport, placing individual dispositions at the forefront, used mainly the idiographic method of research aimed at in-depth study of a particular person, then G. Eysenck and R. Cattell relied primarily on revealing patterns characteristic of significant in terms of community composition. To this end, they examined large samples of subjects and used complex mathematical procedures, in particular, factor analysis, to identify patterns. At the same time, both G. Eysenck and R. Cattell proceeded from the conviction that the main function of psychology is prognostic, that is, the main task is the need to predict human behavior in a given situation.

G. Eysenck believed that all elements or personality traits are combined into a hierarchical structure and can be reduced to universal super-features. Since such superfeatures are more or less inherent in all people, he designated them as types. Initially, G. Eysenck identified two types: extraversion - introversion and neuroticism - stability.

The first type is directly related to the processes of excitation and inhibition, or, in terms of G. Eysenck, "cortical activation". From his point of view, introverts are more excitable than extroverts, which is why they tend to avoid strong external stimulation associated, in particular, with social situations. Extroverts, experiencing a lack of excitement, on the contrary, are constantly looking for additional stimuli in the external environment.

The second type reflects the characteristics of the reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus. People prone to neuroticism react more sharply than stable personalities to stress and other anxiety-producing situations, and their reaction is more stable and lasting. With a certain external similarity of the psychological "filling" of these two types, G. Eysenck characterizes them as orthogonal dimensions of personality, that is, he believes that there is no correlation between them.

Subsequently, G. Eysenck added a third to the two initial types - psychotism, associated with the intensity of androgen production. However, to date, this assumption remains largely hypothetical, lacking sufficient empirical evidence. It is assumed that a high level of psychotism mediates a tendency to nonconformism, and in extreme cases to deviant behavior.

G. Eizenk developed a number of psychodiagnostic methods for identifying individual characteristics for three types of personality. The most famous of these is the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), its use has significantly advanced the study of psychopathology and criminal behavior.

R. Cattell, in contrast to G. Eysenck, who developed his scheme on the basis of previously formulated assumptions, believed that it was possible to identify universal personality traits exclusively empirically, reducing, through factor analysis, an array of data obtained as a result of examining a large number of subjects using various methods, to a minimum possible number of variables. Thus, according to R. Cattell, it is possible to reduce the diverse and changeable surface features, observed and fixed from the outside, to a limited number of universal and stable initial features, the configuration and severity of which determines the essence of the personality.

As a result of long-term multifaceted research, R. Cattell identified 16 initial traits or personality factors that formed the basis of the psychodiagnostic methodology developed by him and widely used "Sixteen Personality Factors" (16 PF).

Further research in this direction, in particular, the work of American psychologists P. Costa and R. McCrae, led to the identification of five initial factors, called the "Big Five". It included neuroticity (N), extraversion (E), openness (O), agreement (A), consciousness (C). To measure the severity of each factor, the NEO-PI questionnaire was developed. The Big Five model has become widespread in organizational and management psychology not only due to its simplicity, but also due to its sufficiently high validity and predictive reliability.

Despite this, almost all theories of personality traits have been repeatedly criticized. In particular, G. Allport was reproached for being eclectic and overly committed to the ideographic method of research. Moreover, the very idea of ​​traits was questioned. In particular, the works of W. Michel provided serious evidence that behavior is mediated by situational factors to a much greater extent than by personality traits.

The concepts of G. Eysenck and R. Kettel seem to many specialists to be too complex, overloaded with statistical procedures and, at the same time, too “deepened” in neurophysiology, which is why they are difficult to adapt to practical application. Moreover, doubts about the reliability and validity of the 16 PF test have been repeatedly expressed, despite the huge sample size of the subjects and the powerful statistical apparatus on which its development was based.

Nevertheless, the works of trait theory apologists have become, in fact, classics of modern psychology, and the psychodiagnostic methods developed by them are still used in socio-psychological research of the widest range of applications.

10.1 G. Allport's dispositional theory of personality. Personality structure: personal dispositions and proprium. General and individual features. Cardinal, central and secondary dispositions. Motivational and stylistic dispositions. Proprium (own). Eight stages of personality formation.

DISPOSITIONAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY
(G.W. Allport)

allport defines a personal as the real essence of each individual person, unique in its originality. The personality of the scientist is called. what lies behind the concrete actions of people. within himself. "Personal is the dynamic organization of those psycho-physical systems within the individual that determine what is characteristic of him behavior and thinking". It is not a static entity, although it has a fundamental structure, it is constantly evolving.

Along with intellect and physical constitution temperament is the primary genetic the material from which the personal is built. It is a particularly important hereditary aspect of emotions. the nature of people (along with the ease of emotional arousal, the prevailing background of mood, mood swings, intensity of emotions). Character yavl. ethical concept and is traditionally associated with a certain moral standard or system values, according to which deeds personal According to Allport's formulation, character is an estimated personal, and personal. is an invaluable character.

The most important unit of analysis of what people are and how they differ from each other in their behavior, yavl. personality trait. Allport defines it as a neuropsychology, a structure capable of translating functionally equivalent stimuli, stimulating and directing equivalent (and therefore stable) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior. A trait is a predisposition to behave in a similar way over a wide range of situations. The combination of traits ensures the stability of human behavior, its recognizability, predictability. A variety of stimuli evoke the same responses, just as reactions in the form of feelings, sensations, interpretations, actions have the same function, meaning. personality traits are not dormant. Situations in which personal it turns out most often - these are, as a rule, exactly the very ones in which she actively seeks to get into.

In Allport's later work, traits were called dispositions, among which three types can be distinguished: cardinal, central and secondary. Cardinal disposition, or ch. passion, possess very few people. This is a highly generalized disposition, so permeating behavior that almost all the actions of people. can be attributed to its influence. Among individuals with such a disposition, one can name Don Juan, Joan of Arc, Albert Schweitzer. Central dispositions are building blocks individuality and represent such tendencies in human behavior that are easily detected by others and are mentioned in the recommendation. letters (e.g. punctuality, attentiveness, responsibility). Secondary dispositions - less visible, less stable, less generalized traits such as food and clothing preferences, situational characteristics, special installations.

Personal not yavl. a set of disparate dispositions, it presupposes unity, integration of all structures. elements of personality. There is a certain principle of organizing assessments, motives, inclinations, sensations into a single whole, which Allport offers to Naz. proprium. Proprium is a positive, creative, growth-seeking and developing human property. nature, perceived as the most important and central. It's about about such a part of the subject. experiences like "mine", oh self. Proprium is a kind of organizing and unifying force, the purpose of which is the formation of the uniqueness of human life.

Allport identifies seven aspects of the self involved in the development of the proprium from childhood to adulthood, calling them propriotic functions. As a result of their final consolidation, the "I" is formed as an object, subject, cognition and sensation. Stages of development of the proprium: 1) the feeling of one's body, which forms the bodily self, which remains throughout life as a support for self-awareness; 2) a sense of self-identity, a significant moment of which is self-awareness through speech as a certain and important person, the emergence of a sense of integrity and continuity of the "I", associated with the name of the child; 3) a sense of self-esteem as a sense of pride about the fact that certain actions are already being performed independently; the most important source of improvement self-esteem throughout childhood; 4) the expansion of the boundaries of the self, which arises as children realize that they own not only their physical body, but also a determinant. significant elements of ext. the world, including people; 5) self-image, when the child begins to focus on the expectations of significant relatives, imagining what "I am good" and "I am bad" means; 6) rational management of oneself, yavl. expressed conformity, moral and social obedience, when a child learns to rationally solve life. problems, dogmatically believing that family, peers and religion are always right; 7) proprietary pursuit, yavl. setting promising life goals, the feeling that life has meaning.

Above the proprium is the knowledge of oneself, synthesizing the enumerated ontogenetic. stage and representing the subjective side of the "I", aware of the "I-objective". In conclusion, the proprium stage correlates with the unique ability of people. To self-knowledge and self-awareness.

Individual is a dynamic (motivated) developing system. Adequate theory motivation, according to Allport, should consider the long-term goals of the person, his intentions. The key to understanding yavl. the answer to the question: "What do you want to do in five years?". According to Allport, a person is free from the past - connections with the past are historical, not functional.

The maturation of It is a continuous, lifelong process of becoming. mature behavior subjects, unlike neurotic subjects, is functionally autonomous and motivated by conscious processes. Mature person. characterized by the following features: 1) has wide boundaries of "I"; 2) capable of warm, cordial social relations; 3) demonstrates emotion. carelessness and self-acceptance; 4) has a healthy sense of reality; 5) has the ability for self-knowledge and a sense of humor; 6) has a whole life. philosophy.

Allport's theory is popular among clinical practitioners. psychologists, psychoanalysts.

10.2 Factor theory of personality H. Eysenck. Bipolar superfactors (extraversion - introversion, neuroticism - stability, superego - psychotism) as three dimensions of personality. The concept of a hierarchical four-level model of personality: specific actions or thoughts; habitual actions or thoughts; personality traits; the highest level is the level of types or superfactors.

Theory of G.Yu.Eysenck. Built on a hierarchical type and includes a description of the three-factor model of psychodynamic. properties (extraversion - introversion, neuroticism and psychotic). These properties Eysenck refers to the types of the general level of hierarchical. organization structure personal. At the next level are traits, below is the level of habitual reactions, actually observed behavior.

Factors of the second order of Cattell correspond to the first two factors of Eysenck, who, in the study of personal. also used assessment methods, questionnaires, situational tests, physiol. measurements, and also took into account the role of heredity.

Eysenck's significant contribution to the field of factor analysis was the development of criteria analysis techniques, which made it possible to single out specific criteria groups of features as much as possible, for example. differentiate the contingent by neuroticism. No less important conceptual position of Eysenck yavl. the idea that the hereditary factor causes differences in people in terms of the reactivity of the autonomic nervous system, the speed and strength of conditioned reactions, that is, according to genotypic. and phenotypic. indicators as the basis individual differences in manifestations of neuroticism, psychotism and extraversion - introversion. Reactive individual inclined under appropriate conditions to the emergence of neurotic. disorders, and individuals who easily form conditioned responses demonstrate introversion in behavior. People with insufficient ability to the formation of conditioned reactions and autonomous reactivity, more often than others they are prone to fears, phobias, obsessions, and other neurotic. symptoms. In general, neurotic behavior yavl. the result of learning, which is based on reactions of fear and anxiety.

Considering that the imperfection of psychiatry, diagnoses are associated with insufficient personality. psychodiagnostics, Eysenck developed questionnaires for this purpose and accordingly adjusted the methods of treatment in psychoneurology.

10.3 Factor theory of traits by R. Cattell. Basic and surface features. temperament traits. Normal features. anomalous traits. Features of the second order. dynamic features. Ergi. Semes are socially formed conducting structures of ergs. The genetic basis of traits. L-data, Q-data, T-data.

Theory of R.B. Cattella comes from the "theory of traits" and the construction of personalities on their basis. profile. Motivational construct of personality space. spheres yavl. dynamic features, the structure of which forms the essence of personal. (a trait is described as a "mental structure" responsible for what is observed behavior, its regularity and consistency).

Personal - this is a set of features that allows you to predict the actions of people. in this situations. Associated with both external and internal. behavior individual. The purpose of psychol. research personal. yavl. establishing the laws by which people behave in typical social situations.

In the structure of personal Cattell distinguished between superficial and original features. Surface traits are clusters of open, outwardly variable, accompanying each other in a range of behaviors. acts. Baseline traits underlie superficial behaviors. traits are more stable, important, give a deep assessment of behavior and are determined only by the method of factor analysis. Any isolated trait yavl. the cumulative product of environmental factors and heredity, but with a predominance of one of the parties ("features formed by the environment" and "constitutional features").

On a functional basis, Cattell divides the features into dynamic ones, providing activity in achieving the goal, traits capabilities, which determine the effectiveness of achieving the goal; temperamental, associated with the constitutional factor, manifested in speed, energy, emotions. reactivity. More variable personal structures. Cattell referred to the states and roles.

Cattell substantiated the system (sources) of obtaining data on personal. Based on the description of a personal in terms temperament, abilities, and other traits, he proposed a "specification equation" for the integral assessment of personal. Predicting personal behavior. in applied terms, it is achieved by combining the "profile of traits" and the profile of psychol indices. situations.

In progress personal development there is a change in its structure.

10.4 The "Big Five" as a way to describe personality: openness to experience (O), conscientiousness (C), extraversion / introversion (E), friendliness (A), emotional stability (N) (OCEAN).

FIVE-FACTORY MODEL OF PERSONALITY

In factor theories, personality is seen as consisting of stable internal factors that determine individual differences. Within this theoretical framework, Allport, Eysenck, Cattell, R. Norman, L. Goldberg.

Creation of P. m. l., as well as works of the mentioned authors, were based on the lexical approach: allocation of criteria for the description personal. from the analysis of nature. language and subsequent scientific. taxonomization. A typical research procedure within the framework of this model looks like this. Trained experts identify adjectives in the dictionary that describe individual differences in behavior. Then concepts are selected according to the criterion of relevance, usability, naturalness and are classified into categories of personal qualities. The structure of traits is subjected to careful analysis. To obtain the final taxonomic structure, a factorial and cluster analysis of research data is carried out, constructed as an assessment and self-assessment procedure.

As a result of the work carried out, five factors were identified that showed stability in different samples, including in different sociocultural conditions. The personality structure proposed on the basis of research by P. Costa and R. McCra was called the Big Five in 1961. It consists of the following dimensions (in parentheses are adjectives that received the highest load on factors):

1. Extraversion-introversion (sociable, assertive, energetic, active).

2. Accommodating (good-natured, cooperative, trusting).

3. Conformity (conscientious, responsible, disciplined).

4. Emotional stability (calm, not neurotic, not depressed).

5. Openness (intellectual, independently thinking). Based on P. m. l. the personality questionnaire NEO PI-R was developed. At present, the most discussed issues are the reproducibility of the obtained measurements, elucidation of the reasons for their universality, the number of factors and their content, the need to identify middle-level categories. The problem is that the factors obtained may not reflect the structure of a person, but be the result of a method. This is indicated by the similarity of the factors with the measurements of the semantic differential.

As a criticism, it should be noted that the theory does not pay enough attention to the problem of development (with the exception of a discussion of individual longitudinal studies and comparison of data obtained from samples of different ages). According to the content of P. m. l. - the structure of individual differences, and not the structure of personality, which allows us to understand and predict the dynamics of development, the causes of violations, etc. The subject of study is the observed behavior, and not its causes and factors. The motivational system, emotions, and the structure of the intellectual qualities of a person turned out to be beyond the scope of attention.

According to Cattell, personality traits are relatively constant tendencies to respond in a certain way in different situations and at different times. The spectrum of action of these tendencies is extremely wide. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics and, by far, are the most important in Cattell's concept. He singled out:

1. Surface features - initial features. A surface feature is a set of behavioral characteristics that, when observed, appear in an "inseparable" unity.

2. Source traits, in contrast, are the foundational structures that Cattell believes form the building blocks of the very building of personality.

After an extensive research work using factor analysis, Cattell came to the conclusion that the basic structure of personality is formed by about sixteen initial traits. These personality trait factors are known in connection with the scale now used to measure them: the Cattell Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF).

3) Constitutional traits - traits formed environment. Constitutional traits develop from the biological and physiological data of the individual. Traits shaped by the environment, on the other hand, are conditioned by influences in the social and physical environment.

4) Ability, temperament and dynamic traits. Abilities as traits determine a person's skills and effectiveness in achieving a desired goal. Temperament traits refer to other emotional and stylistic qualities of behavior. For example, people may work on a task either quickly or slowly; they may react calmly or hysterically to a crisis. Cattell considers temperament traits as constitutional initial traits that determine a person's emotionality. Finally, dynamic traits reflect the motivational elements of human behavior.

3. 4) Common features - unique features. Like Allport, Cattell is convinced that it makes sense to classify traits into common and unique. Common features are those that are present in varying degrees all members of the same culture. For example, self-esteem, intelligence, and introversion are common traits. Conversely, unique traits are those that only a few or even one person have. Cattell suggests that unique traits are especially common in areas of interest and attitudes.

Question No. 41 Personality traits according to G. Eysenck

The essence of Eysenck's theory is that the elements of personality can be arranged hierarchically. There are certain super-traits or types in his schema, such as extraversion, that have a powerful influence on behavior. In turn, he sees each of these super-features built from several composite features. These component traits are either more superficial reflections of the underlying type or specific qualities inherent in that type. And finally, traits consist of numerous habitual reactions , which, in turn, are formed from specific reactions.

Consider the superfeatures highlighted by G. Eysenck.

Type E

Extrovert type.

Sociable, impulsive, lively, witty, optimistic.

introverted type.

Passive, secretive, thoughtful, pessimistic, peaceful.

The main level of differences between them is the level of excitation of the cerebral cortex, psychological factor which is hereditary.

Type N

neuroticism - neuroticism

neuroticism- tend to overreact emotionally to excitement with difficulty returning to a calm state.

neuroticism- guilt, low self-esteem, irrationality, shyness.

Extraversion, neuroticism, introversion and neuroticism are statistically independent of each other, according to which people can be divided into 4 groups.

Stable introvert- calm, emotionally independent, reliable, peaceful, attentive, caring, passive.