BASIC SOCIAL ATTITUDES OF THE PERSON

People differ from each other in the way they interact with others. It is possible to single out certain recurring stereotypes of behavior inherent in each particular person and the way of establishing relationships characteristic of him. However, a person cannot always adhere without any restrictions to the style to which he is accustomed and which suits him. The stability and rigidity of some skills sometimes makes it difficult to contact people. These skills and habits take root in a person under the influence of past experience and are manifested in stereotypes of thinking, perception and behavior. Formed in the past, they become part of the personality and "emerge" in actual situations, "demanding" that the individual use them. A person feels them as some kind of internal need.

Typical patterns of behavior in situations of interpersonal contacts can be defined as orientation on of people, from of people, against people, the desire to take a stand above people or under them. In other words, it means readiness approach with people, avoid their, fight with them, dominate over them or obey them. An analysis of which individual patterns of behavior are manifested in contacts with certain people makes it possible to more fully characterize the state of these contacts. One of the possible typologies of styles of relations with other people, given below, can be a good help for this. Its author is the well-known psychologist William Schutz, who for many years has been studying interpersonal relationships and developing psychological means of influencing relationships in order to improve the forms of coexistence of people. I suggest you get acquainted with the main provisions of this typology.

I would like to start the exposition of Schutz's concept with the statement that people need each other. This need is so significant, so deeply ingrained in all of our lives, that most of what has ever been written about man is actually related in one way or another to this fact - people's need for each other.

There are many different definitions of this need and even more ways to satisfy it. Each of us, looking closely at ourselves or at others, can see that people differ, for example, in how willingly they spend time in the company. Varying in their willingness and willingness to spend time with others, people may have greater or lesser need connect with those around you.

We can also differ from each other in our willingness and desire to influence others, as well as in situations of interpersonal communication. Some people are more able to control and influence their relationships with others, while others are less able to do so.

Another point to pay attention to when analyzing in-depth individual differences is how emotional climate most typical for situations of communication of this particular person with other people. Some prefer relationships associated with very intense feelings, "hot" passions, others feel better in a more "cool" atmosphere, when experiences are not so strong, and emotional involvement is weaker.

So, the three main types of individual needs and desires associated with different forms interpersonal relationships are:

1. the need for closeness (attachment) to people,
2. the need to influence people
3. the need for emotional involvement.

Each of us has individual and specific behavior patterns for each type of needs. The totality of these models, Schutz, in his book, calls the main attitude of the individual in interpersonal relations. * Such an attitude characterizes the most stable and habitual forms of behavior for a given individual. Naturally, in Everyday life it is difficult to fully realize such models and expectations, since different people have different styles of behavior.

* Apparently referring to the work of Schutz: Schutz William C. FIRO (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation). A three-dimensional theory of interpersonal behavior. N.Y., Holt., 1960. Note. ed.

Each person tries, often unconsciously, to behave in accordance with his individual attitude, and what happens between people is essentially the result of the coordination of heterogeneous aspirations. Indeed, often the nature of a person's behavior in interpersonal relationships differs from his individual style or model. Someone much more often than he would like to be alone. The other has too little influence on the actions of others. The third is too painfully experiencing the emotional coldness that has developed in the environment where he lives. It happens that in the relationship of two or more people there are misunderstandings and conflicts due to the fact that these people are characterized by different patterns of "attachment", "influence" and "emotional involvement".

That such differences exist is a fact quite common in everyday life, and if people are to improve their relationships, they must learn to successfully resolve the problems that arise from these differences. Often the sources of such problems seem to be hidden behind visible behavior and reactions. To successfully cope with everyday problems, you need to be able to see their deep, hidden meaning, understand the internal needs of people that determine their style of relationships with others.

Two aspects of these needs can be distinguished in terms of analysis. One of them is related to the consideration of the position of "I" in relation to others, that is, what is most characteristic of a given person in his behavior with others, what he would like to do in relation to them.

Second aspect: others in relation to me; it characterizes what the given subject would like from others, and what corresponds to his desires.

Thus, each of the three types of needs can be considered from the point of view of what the individual would like to do in relation to others, what he would like to "give", and from the point of view of the individual's expectations from others, that is, what he wanted to "receive".

Describing each of the needs, we will use examples of somewhat exaggerated stereotypes of behavior that can be dictated by the desire for "attachment", "influence on others" and "emotional involvement". These examples can, as it were, be placed at the extreme poles of the scales. For each of the three types of needs, we will give four descriptions, two from the position of I → Others, two from the position of Others → I. We hope that everyone can find their place within these scales, the place that best characterizes behavior aimed at satisfaction of a particular need.

Attachment to others

Depending on what determines our actions in relation to other people, it would be possible to single out, as it were, two extremes, two opposite behaviors. If we imagine them as two poles of the same scale, then at one of the poles one should place a person who needs to constantly stay in the company of others; he, as a rule, organizes his life and time in such a way that he never remains alone, he is a member of many organizations, various clubs, circles, etc. Such a person actively strikes up friendly relations and feels good only in society. Therefore, we can say that he has an extremely developed need to feel included in any human community.

On the opposite pole of the scale, one could place a person who does not particularly need contacts, loves loneliness, rarely meets anyone on his own initiative, tries to organize his time and affairs in such a way as to avoid too frequent communication with others. Thus, it can be said that he has a very weakly developed need for attachment to others.

From the point of view of what kind of behavior a person expects from others, we can also distinguish two opposite type of expectations and represent them as two poles of the same scale.

At one pole one should place a person who is extremely interested in others seeking friendship and meetings with him, often inviting him to their place, etc. He is always ready to accept invitations and is glad for any initiative in his address. He has a very developed need to be the object of someone's affection.

At the other end of the scale, one could place a person who does not like to accept invitations, does not respond to the desire of other people to establish friendly relations with him, and is more likely to suppress any such initiative addressed to him by others. He has a very weak need for others to feel attached to him.

By connecting each of these two pairs of poles with straight lines, each of us can find his place on the scales, closer or further to one or another pole. This place will show the degree of expressiveness of everyone's need to feel affection for people or be the object of affection of others.

Control into influence

From the point of view of the initiative of our actions in relation to others, two opposite types can be distinguished, characterized by the intensity of this need. These types also represent two extremes, which could be represented graphically as the poles of the scale. At one pole should be placed an individual who is extremely interested in controlling everything that happens around him, influencing what others do, feel and think. Such a person would like to have the right or means to determine the outcome of specific situations of interpersonal contacts. We can say that he has a very developed need to influence other people.

At the opposite pole, one should place a person who does not want to control anyone, who avoids minimally influencing people even when it is necessary due to some significant circumstances. Such a person always tries to refuse cases if they require him to make efforts to organize situations involving other people. He has almost no need to influence others.

Analyzing relationships from the perspective of Others → I, that is, from the point of view of what kind of influence a person expects from others, one can also distinguish two opposite types of expectations. An extreme version of one type would be a person who needs others to influence him, decide what to do, so that his actions correspond to their desires and expectations. Such a person does not resist when they try to control him. It is characterized by a pronounced need to be controlled and influenced by others.

The other extreme is a person who tries to resist any influences of others, who strongly protests against attempts to control him, regardless of the situation and circumstances, who does not want to accept any influences of other people and obey them. We can say that this person has a minimal need for influence from others.

If we connect each of the two pairs of extreme points with straight lines, any of us will surely find a place for ourselves on the resulting scales, closer or further to one of the poles. The position on the scales will reflect the degree of severity of the need to influence others or be the object of their influence.

Emotional involvement

From the position of I → Others, we can distinguish two opposite behaviors that characterize our desire to ensure that communication with others is emotionally saturated. A variant of one type of behavior will be typical for a person who usually enters into close, personally significant relationships with many other people, strives to reduce the distance between himself and others, needs strong, vivid emotional experiences. He has a very strong need for emotional involvement in relationships.

The opposite behavior will be inherent in a person who seeks to maintain a distance in relations with others, to enter into close contacts as little as possible, prefers cool relations even in friendly contacts; tries not to maintain close emotionally rich ties with anyone. Thus, the need for emotional involvement in such a person is minimal.

Considering the same need from the perspective of Others → I, that is, from the point of view of what we expect from people, we can also distinguish two opposite types of expectations. One extreme position is inherent in a person who passionately desires that people communicating with him have strong and diverse feelings for him, that they strive for close and intimate relationships with him, that they reduce the distance separating them. He is characterized by a pronounced need for others to feel a strong emotional involvement with him.

Opposite extreme a person who does not like it when others try to get close to him or start emotionally rich relationships with him He feels more comfortable when others keep a long distance from him, restrainedly show their feelings towards him. If each of the two pairs of positions is represented as points and connected by straight lines, scales are formed on which any of us can find his place. A point on the scale will reflect the degree to which each person's need for emotional involvement: ours when communicating with others, or other people when communicating with us.

With the help of the above characteristics, everyone can try to describe himself or anyone else, intuitively assessing his own or his own aspirations and needs using positions on the six polar scales.

These needs, as a rule, are only partially satisfied in everyday life. This is often the cause of dissatisfaction with interpersonal relationships, although the source of this feeling usually remains not fully conscious.

How to find your place among people?

Each person has his own individual way of orientation in interpersonal contacts. This method is based on certain patterns of behavior and expectations, and knowledge of its distinctive features can contribute to a better understanding of the person. The mere fact of any location on the six scales described above should not yet be regarded as good or bad. A variety of consequences for specific people are associated with this or that position, depending on the situation of communication, on the characteristics of their professional activities and environment, and on individual personality traits.

Contacts with others cannot be built arbitrarily, based only on one's own desires. You need to be flexible in relation to your needs and attitudes. The way of orientation in interpersonal contacts is by no means absolutely unchanged, although it often seems that this is so. In general, the internal mechanisms that correspond to the described orientations, expectations and attitudes are so firmly established in the structure of our "I" that they are perceived as leading needs. However, these are not fundamental needs, such as the need for respect or security, the satisfaction of which is vital for a person.

Discrepancies between the strength of internal needs for affection, influence and emotional involvement and the specific circumstances of life can cause a person to desire to change either external circumstances or the intensity of the need, or to make partial changes in the external and internal world. For example, a person with a strong need to influence and control the environment may aspire to a leadership position. Professional activity, adequate to the internal needs of the individual, contributes to the satisfaction of this need. You can also limit your desires and realize them only within a single community, for example, in a family, taking on the function of controlling what happens at home.

It seems to me that when the intensity of the listed needs is moderate, that is, graphically they can be placed between the two poles of the corresponding scales, then there are much fewer problems associated with their satisfaction. An example of this can be, for example, the balance of desires for solitude and for participation in the activities of various groups. Excessive intensity of certain needs is often associated with underlying emotional problems.

As an illustration of these provisions, we give a description of several people who experience serious difficulties in communication.

Arda. She has a strong tendency to isolate herself from the group. She avoids contact with other people and does not take any initiative from acquaintances when they want to establish closer contacts with her. At any cost, Arda strives to keep a distance from others and is afraid of the penetration of strangers into her intimate and peculiar inner world. Nevertheless, she unconsciously strives for others to pay attention to her. Most of all, Arda fears that others will ignore her, will not be interested in her. She is internally convinced that "she cannot really interest others in herself," and she no longer wants to take the risk and again make sure that she is ignored. "Therefore, it is better to stay away from people, to be alone more often." The self-sufficiency of Arda is, as it were, the main form of its coexistence with people. Apparently, the girl's greatest fears are associated with the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bherself as a useless, uninteresting person. She believes that if no one considers her worthy of attention, then her value is negligible. Arda is weary of life.

Bogdan. He is constantly looking for people and wants others to be engaged and interested in his special. He is afraid that he will not be noticed, but behaves completely differently than Arda. His inner unconscious credo can be formulated as follows: "Since no one is interested in me, I should try by any means to attract the attention of other people, to make sure that they are next to me." Bogdan cannot be alone and is always looking for company.

Elena. Distinctive feature Elena is her desire to obey other people, at the same time avoiding any of her own influence on others and responsibility for her actions. She would like people to relieve her of all kinds of obligations. Elena does not control others even when necessary. She is afraid that others will not help her when she needs help, and that she will be given more responsibilities than she can handle. Subconsciously, Elena feels incapable of responsible and mature actions, which other people guess. She is at her best when she manages to avoid situations in which she could feel helpless. She considers herself an incompetent and irresponsible person, stupid and not worthy of respect. Behind this lies fear, a sense of hostility and distrust of people who, as it seems to Elena, may refuse to help her. Her hostility usually manifests itself in passive resistance. One of the forms of resistance can be constant self-doubt, doubts, resentment and statements like "let everything be as it will be", but Elena is afraid to openly resist.

Edward. Often tries to dominate others, would very much like a hierarchical system of distribution of power, strives to take the highest positions. He is afraid that others will not follow his orders, that they will ignore his influence, will try to get the better of him. The internal mechanism of these expectations and ideas is the same as Elena's. Edward considers himself an irresponsible person, unable to cope with his affairs and responsibilities. It seems to him that other people know this or can guess about it. Therefore, he takes every opportunity to show others and himself that this is not so. His inner, not fully realized credo can be expressed as follows: "Everyone thinks that I cannot independently and successfully make decisions, so I must show everyone that this is not the case. I will constantly make decisions for each of them." Edward suspects that others will try to make decisions for him, that they don't trust him.

Grazhina. In communication with people, she does not emotionally turn on, avoids strong feelings and does not want others to show her their feelings. It seems that unconsciously Grazhina is just looking for strong feelings, but she is afraid that no one will love her, no one will want to be friends with her, will not be carried away by her. She doesn't believe in other people's feelings. Her inner and not fully realized credo can be expressed as follows: “I know that any emotional experiences bring only pain, more than once I was rejected and deeply hurt. This should not happen again, because it can destroy me, for the rest of my life I will avoid close contact with people.

Henrik. He needs close and intimate contacts, establishes a lot of personally significant relationships, in which he is very quickly and strongly involved. Frequent change of partners does not bring him satisfaction, he constantly rushes about in search of real and deep feelings. In fact, Henrik is haunted by the fear that other people's feelings are not sincere enough, that they may soon dry up, and that his own experiences are not real. Henrik's inner experiences can be described as follows: "My first and strongest emotional experience was too painful for me, but if I keep trying to experience new feelings, if I keep looking, then maybe someday I will find my an ideal that will not disappoint me."

It is clear that the above descriptions do not contain the full characteristics of the named people. We have touched only on those problems that are associated with our heroes with overdeveloped or undeveloped needs for attachment to people, for influencing them and for emotional involvement in communication.

In order to better understand what is going on behind the scenes of our ordinary daily life, you can use the listed categories in their graphical representation in the form of points on six polar scales. Of greatest interest is the analysis of the behavior of people whose needs should be placed near the extreme points of the scales.

I would like to invite the reader to think about the various possible consequences of the interaction of such people. For example, what can happen if two people meet, each of whom has a pronounced need to influence and control the environment and at the same time is not at all ready to succumb to the influence and control of the other? It can be assumed that the similar needs of these people will lead to a clash of their intentions, constant quarrels and disputes about who will manage and determine the nature of the relationship. A completely different situation would arise if one of them did not feel a passionate desire to influence others, but, on the contrary, would have a pronounced need to obey external influences. It is safe to say that in this scenario, both partners would have much more opportunities to meet their individual needs in the field of influence and control than in the situation described above. The submissive would be necessary for the one who seeks to dominate, and vice versa. In the sphere of influence and control, there would be complete agreement between the partners; however, neither harmony nor disagreement of this kind should be overestimated. A person who is clearly aware of his needs in the areas discussed and the needs of his partner, successfully and with greater understanding copes with the difficulties that arise for him.

There is a fairly widespread point of view that people who want to maintain close relationships must adapt to each other. There are even attempts to form pairs using a computer, based on a combination of different characteristics of partners, similar to those that I wrote about above. I don't really trust these ways of improving relationships, especially if they are based on the assertion that you can absolutely determine who will be a good and optimal partner for a given person. Predictions based on the measurement of various personal characteristics of a person should be treated only as auxiliary means to better understand what is actually happening, or what might happen.

Relationship Status Diagnosis Guide

If the reader wants to analyze for himself the possible consequences of relationships between people with different needs for attachment, influence on others and emotional involvement, he will see that in some cases the similarity between partners can cause conflicts, and in some cases facilitate relationships. The same can be said about the differences. All this suggests that there are no simple schemes, the mastery of which will make the knowledge and understanding of others people easy and uncomplicated.

To comprehend interpersonal relationships, to understand what is really happening between us, is impossible using one, even the most sophisticated method. But if we compare many different points of view, empirically test different judgments and ideas, we will be able to deepen our knowledge about a person.

During the seminar, the trainees will take part in procedures that at first glance are not related to the objectives of the training. Sometimes it is enough that only the trainer is aware of why a certain element of the program is needed, and sometimes the participants also need to know this in order to feel more comfortable. For most groups, it is enough to be told that the general meaning of what is happening will become clear only at the end and that some procedures are designed in such a way that their implementation is possible only on the condition that no one knows in advance what exactly they are intended for.

From time to time, draw the attention of the participants to the goals of the program and the practical application of its results. For example, when participants begin to demonstrate new skills and knowledge, you can purposefully orient them towards success. This simple and effective technique is based on the use of a specific plan of action and promotes the practical application of acquired knowledge and skills.

Future orientation

If the participants in your training are constantly getting new information and are engaged in all kinds of exercises, then the course itself will be exciting for them. And understanding the direction of the course to achieve certain goals will create additional motivation, which will benefit the participants of the seminar.

Questions of motivation are more acute in situations where the future is presented to the participants as vague or bleak. The attitude of the participants to their work may not have a direct impact on the course of the seminar, but its success depends on the level of motivation of the participants. Without motivation, it is impossible to succeed at work, which means that some programs will only be successful if we can help participants solve problems that bother them outside of the workshop.

One of the methods is to work with the participants on the positive and negative options for the development of events in the future. Some people are motivated by positive aspects and some by negative ones. For the former, motivation is based on the possibility of achieving the goal. We set a goal for the participants and help them understand why they need to achieve it. Negatively motivated participants need to be aware of the fear and horror they will experience if no change occurs or if they fail to reach their goal. This is especially true when participants are apprehensive about the outcome of the workshop as such, as may be the case during strategic meetings about mergers, downsizing, overproduction, or any other drastic change. But even considering the worst case scenario, such as losing your job, can bring some relief. Once participants have expressed their worst fears, they have the strength to accept the situation and move on.

In any motivational project, it is wise to make time for both the positive and the negative so that no one is left behind. When we show participants these opposite types of motivation (positive and negative), we make certain issues explicit about which our students can make their own decisions.

Scenarios for creating motivation

First explain to the trainees that change is inevitable and maintaining the status quo is not an option for them.

When working with positive motivation: focus on the positive aspects of changes happening to a person; give examples of the positive results of such changes; create a realistic, detailed scenario of future events.

When working with negative motivation: communicate all possible negative consequences as early as possible in order to accelerate the start of the change process; whenever possible, give examples of possible negative consequences.

You will make a strong impression on the group if you take the participants on a tour where they can see two sites - a modern example of the best approach and an abandoned factory that at one time did not take into account the difficulties similar to those it is currently facing. their company. A tour will have a greater impact on participants than watching a video, which in turn is preferable to a still image, which is still better than a detailed description of events, which in turn has a better impact on the seminar participants than a vague warning.

Research shows that people who have goals achieve more success in life than people who don't. The poet Robert Browning clearly captured the inspiring nature of human aspirations in his lines: “Oh, yes, the pie in the sky must be higher than a man can reach, otherwise why then Paradise?” (Robert Browning, 1845).

Helping participants set their own goals will be more beneficial to them than having you (or their sponsor) do it for them. Motivation in achieving the goal that you yourself set is much more effective than any other external stimulus. The realization of the personal goals of the participants will rather be perceived by them as something happening in their interests, and not in the interests of the managers of their enterprise. Once a person has agreed on a goal and taken the first steps towards its achievement, for example, writing down the goal or telling someone about it, he begins to participate much more actively in the process aimed at achieving it.

Depending on the type of program, you can ask participants to identify what goals they would like to achieve during the program and what they would like to achieve at the end of the program. Participant confidence grows with the number of goals achieved. The motivation of the participants will be higher if: the goal is formulated in writing; participants work together to achieve the goal; possible difficulties and obstacles on the way to the goal are discussed; there is a plan to overcome these obstacles.

Note to yourself that the actual achievement of the goal is not the most important part of the process. For some people, the fact that they almost reached the goal means little, for them it is more important than their efforts and achievements in the intermediate stage. Others strive specifically to achieve the goal, and some participants will be especially happy if they manage to do something beyond the intended goals. Nevertheless, the main thing in all situations is precisely this presence of purpose.

Researchers Sims and Lorenzi (1992) write: “Although the pursuit of the goal determines the performance of the best performers, they do not always fully achieve them ... The emphasis is on improving the process of performance itself, and not on the goal perse ". A well-defined goal is more effective for the execution process and its results than an ambiguous goal of "show what you can do." So ask the participants to be more precise in their definitions. A good test is to see if there is a way to check if the goal is achieved. Can the participant who has set a goal explain how he will know that the goal has been achieved?

Due to the fact that more complex goals contain an element of challenge, they contribute to more efficient work than simple goals. The task of the trainer is to create an atmosphere in which each participant wants to be more demanding of himself.

WHY DO GOALS INCREASE MOTIVATION?

Goals: help to concentrate; cause actions; help mobilize efforts; contribute to the directed application of efforts; contribute to the development of strategies, since the goal can be achieved in various ways.

In interpersonal relationships, I used such parameters as emotional involvement in the activities of another, emotional attitude towards him, i.e. the ability to participate, empathize with a peer, and prosocial behavior.
2.2.1. Emotional involvement in peer activities.

In our study, the following methods allowed us to obtain material on this parameter: "Mosaic", "Drawing", "Puzzle».

To assess the degree of emotional involvement, the following scale was used:

0 points - complete lack of emotional attitude to peers, indifference;

1 point - low degree of emotional involvement (short, fragmentary glances towards a peer);

2 points - the average degree of emotional involvement (the child is passionate about experiences, the activities of a friend, but also pays a significant part of his attention to his activities);

3 points - a high degree of emotional involvement (the child empathizes with the feelings of a peer, is more busy with his work, sometimes forgetting about his task).

The relationship of children in the experimental situation was assessed using this scale. The results obtained are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

The degree of manifestation of emotional involvement, in%.

The data obtained allow us to state that a high degree of emotional involvement prevails in the relationships of first-graders, and in the second grade the average degree of emotional attitude towards a peer is most pronounced.

During the experiment, it was noticed that children do not always show their attitude towards their peers in a positive way, there were cases of a negative attitude towards him even with a high degree of emotional involvement in the activities of a friend. Therefore, such an indicator as a sign of emotional involvement was singled out: positive, neutral and negative manifestations of attention to another in different experimental situations.

Positive manifestations we considered the support of another, complicity. Providing assistance, hints to a friend, etc. Such children defended their comrade (“Well, why, she knows how!”), Rejoiced at his success (“Well, well done, I understood right away!”), Supported him (“Don’t worry, I was also worried and therefore I didn’t succeed either” ).

As negative manifestations of emotional involvement, I attributed the failure to provide assistance despite a direct request, frustration due to the success of another, dissatisfaction, irony (“Yes, the head is two ears!”), Exaltation of one’s successes (“Of course, I did better! ”, “I did it faster”, etc.), envy.

We considered neutral manifestations that did not have a pronounced character. Such children, as a rule, were passive, reacted weakly to the situation, or simply sat with a smile, but did not take part in what was happening. I separately counted the number of positive, negative and neutral manifestations in the interactions of children.

These data are presented in table 2.

Expression of emotional involvement, in%.

Such results allow us to speak about an equally high rate of negative attitude in the first class and positive - in the second class, i.e. pupils of the 1st grade were more often upset because of the success of another, agreed with a negative assessment of the activities of a friend, ironically, laughed at his failures, boasted, compared, extolled themselves.

Second-graders, on the contrary, more often defended their friend when an adult was blamed, rejoiced at the success of another, supported him.

Methods reflecting the nature of the attitude to the actions of a peer - "Mosaic", "Drawing", "Puzzle".

To assess the nature of attitudes towards peers, we identified 2 types:

1 - the nature of the relationship according to the type of complicity, empathy: this included adequate reactions to the praise and censure of a friend (joy to success and chagrin at the failure of another, protection), offering one's help ("I can give you a pencil if you want!"), advice (" You can draw orange instead of red”), as well as active positive participation in the activities of a friend, providing support (Yes, this is a difficult task! But don’t be upset, next time you will definitely succeed!”);

2 - the nature of the relationship according to the type of competitiveness: children with this type of attitude towards a peer gave inadequate reactions to the praise of another (were upset) and to the censure of a peer (agreed with a negative assessment), ignored the difficulties of a friend, did not provide assistance to another who got into a difficult situation when performing tasks, even with a direct request for help, often because of the fear that a friend will complete the task better, faster, because of the unwillingness to lose.

The results for these indicators are shown in Table 3.

The nature of the relationship to peers, in%.

As can be seen from Table 3, both in the first and second grades, the competitive nature of the attitude towards a peer was equally pronounced, which means that children more often showed inadequate reactions to the praise and blame of another, failure to provide assistance, etc. Prosocial actions sometimes turned out to be due to the fear that a friend would be more successful (collect faster, draw better).

2.2.3. Prosocial behavior of children.

This indicator of interpersonal relations of children was revealed in the methods "Gifts", "Drawing", "Puzzle".

Prosociality of behavior is expressed in the child's ability to perform actions in favor of another. Such actions are aimed at a peer, which indicates the priority of the interests of a friend, the perception of his experiences as his own. Such a child either gives all his gifts to others, or shares his things, gives his friend the turn, pencils, etc., takes initiative in difficult situations, provides assistance, support.

When a child does not know how to act in favor of another, when he does not want to share and leaves all the gifts to himself, does not yield at all or yields, but only for his own benefit, does not help and does not pay attention to the helplessness of a friend, when he is concentrated only on his task - this is may indicate the priority of one's own experiences and the focus of actions on oneself.

Thus, in the parameter of prosocial behavior, 2 indicators are distinguished:

The results obtained for two types of orientation are presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Prosociality of children's behavior, in%.

Thus, in the first class we have a greater degree of action directed toward oneself, while in the third class an increase is observed in terms of the direction of actions toward a peer. This may indicate that for first-graders, their own activities and experiences are more significant, and for third-graders, the activities and experiences of a friend are more significant.

In the first and second grades, there was some instability in the decision to dispose of gifts and susceptibility to external influences of the fact of making a decision. At the beginning, such children said: “I really need erasers!”, “I will definitely eat sweets, they are delicious!” give one", "Maybe I'll give it to my brother / sister", "If they ask, then of course I will give it." As a result, socially approved actions were committed in these and some other situations.
2.2.4. Relationship types.

1. Competitive type of relationship.

A characteristic feature of the behavior of such children is that most problem situations they decide in their favor. There is a demonstration of their advantages (“Look how beautiful I am!”), A comparison with self-exaltation (“I think I did better!”), Irony about the abilities of a peer (“Yes, the head is two ears!”). Actions in general

directed at themselves, in rare cases - at a friend. At the same time, interest in him for the most part is expressed weakly, and emotional involvement is predominantly negative character.

Often the reaction to the praise and blame of another is inadequate - the child supports the experimenter in a negative assessment (“Really, he does not succeed at all”), does not agree (“It seems to me that he is doing badly and very slowly”), or defiantly does not pay attention attention to the praise of a peer, turns his head away. Actions in favor of a friend are sometimes performed for their own benefit ("I'll give you a pencil, but you give me a green one, I'll need it"). Such children may not pay attention to the request for help.

They are happy to play the role of a verifier, they scrupulously compare each element of a friend’s drawing with a sample and make many comments on this matter (“Something is crooked. How many petals you have, look - this is not the case. And, in general, the stem turns to the side. Your drawing is not at all similar and not very neat"). The introduction of a competitive motive in solving tasks exacerbates the desire to compete. When the children were told that the task was being completed on time, they tried their best to do it faster and better, which they tried to emphasize (having completed the task somewhat more successfully than a friend, Anton jumped for a long time and shouted: "Hurrah! I won! I'm faster!").

2. Sympathetic type of relationship.

The main feature of the behavior of such children is the presence of a sufficiently high degree of emotional and practical involvement in the activities of another, which has a positive connotation. These children sympathize with their peers, emotionally support him (“Don’t worry when you worry - your hands are shaking, that’s why you don’t get it right, it happened to me too!”), Give advice (“Try to swap these parts, and you don’t rush , think carefully"), seek to help ("I've already assembled such a puzzle. You know how I trained. If you want, I'll help you"). Actions and interest in most cases are directed to a peer.

Such guys relate adequately to the censure and praise of their peers, rejoice at his success (“Yes, well done, I said that everything will work out”) and are upset by mistakes (“You were a little unlucky, they probably gave you little time”).

Sometimes they compare and evaluate the results of activities, but do not affect the personality of a peer. Participation in the competition of these children is of little interest, often by the end of the task they generally forget about the condition of time, as well as about the role of the inspector. Mostly they pay attention to what worries a friend, than to whether the task was completed correctly and in what time.

3. Unstable type of relationship.

A distinctive characteristic of children with this type of relationship to their peers is that they do not have a specific strategy of behavior in the experiment. It constantly fluctuates - in some cases, the behavior is sympathetic, sympathetic, in others it is competitive. There is a constant maneuvering and adjustment to the situation and peers, as evidenced by the predominant number of actions aimed at a friend.

For example, often such children, when censuring the actions of their peers by adults, agree with a negative assessment, but after the praise or success of a friend, they rejoice for him.

These children watch their peers with interest, but never forget about their own task, have a tendency to think over a decision. They are in no hurry to express or emotionally color their attitude towards another (shrug their shoulders in response, make an uncertain look), the involvement here has an unstable expression.

Perhaps this type of relationship to a peer for some part of the children would be more correctly called labile, because. their behavior was often dictated not so much by uncertainty as to what to do, but by caution and sensitivity, which allowed them to restructure their behavior in accordance with

the requirements of the situation.

So, for example, these children share and offer their help to a friend, counting on the fact that a peer in a similar situation will act towards him in the same way.

4. Normative type of relationship.

The main sign of this type of relationship is the orientation towards compliance with various rules and norms (educational, behavioral, friendly - how you can and how you can not do it). These guys evaluate the results of their friend’s activities in terms of educational criteria (“You drew something crookedly. You need to draw in the middle of the sheet, and not so high. Remember, the teacher told us?”). They are characterized by an appeal to a sample and a comparison with it (“The sample is not drawn at all like that!”), A clarification from an adult how to do it “more correctly”, which cannot be allowed (“Does the drawing need to be made exactly the same size or can you draw more?” ). In other words, they seem to feel the boundaries within which they are allowed to operate. From the same point of view, they evaluate the activities of their peers, they look at how carefully he fulfills various requirements.

As a rule, students with this type of attitude are emotionally strongly involved in the activities of another, the severity of such interest is predominantly positive. But the direction of actions and the nature of the attitude towards a peer are unstable and change depending on how a peer acts, how “correctly”.

They can evaluate an act from the point of view of morality, which is often realized in prosocial behavior (support a friend in difficult times, help him).

So, Alina, when asked how she would dispose of the sweets - whether she would eat them herself or share them with someone, answered: “It’s not good to be greedy, of course I will share, I can give them all - it’s better than being greedy and leave everything to yourself. Sweets then will not bring any joy.

Age dynamics of individual types of attitude.

The above described 4 types of individual attitudes towards peers, identified on the material of the experiment. Let us turn to a comparative table expressing the quantitative ratio of individual types in grades 1 and 2.

age groups, in %

As can be seen from the table, at the initial stage of education in the lower grades, the number of children with a competitive type of attitude towards their peers prevails.

The smallest expression here has an unstable type, the number of students with a sympathetic and normative type is approximately the same.

At the end of training in primary school the predominant type of relationship is also competitive, but the number of children here is somewhat reduced due to an increase in sympathetic and unstable types, the latter at this age are equally common. There are practically no indicators of the normative type.

Thus, the number of children with different type attitudes towards peers as a whole corresponds to the age dynamics described above.

Conclusions on the second chapter.

1. In the relationship of first-graders in the experimental situation, a high degree of emotional involvement prevails; in the relationship of third-graders, the average degree of emotional attitude towards a peer is most pronounced.

2. In the first grade, emotional involvement is predominantly negative, i.e. more common is grief because of the success of another, adult support in a negative assessment of the activities of a friend, boasting, comparison with self-exaltation. In the second grade, on the contrary, a positive expression of the emotional attitude is more often detected, i.e. children protect a friend, rejoice in his success, emotionally support, give positive assessments.

3. Both in the first and second grades, the competitive nature of the attitude towards a peer was equally pronounced, which means that children more often demonstrate inadequate reactions to the praise and blame of another, failure to provide assistance, etc.

4. In the first grade, such an indicator of prosocial behavior as the focus of actions on oneself was most pronounced, while in the second grade, on the contrary, more actions are performed directed at a peer. This may indicate that for first-graders, their own activities and interests are more important, and for second-graders, the activities and experiences of a friend are more important.

Conclusion.

The main task of our work was to identify and study the features of interpersonal relationships and communication junior schoolchildren and the dynamics of these features throughout the period of primary education.

To do this, we used the observation, the results of which showed that:

1. Contacts of children of the 1st grade are often pointless and meaningless. The main task of these interactions is physical unloading, rest. While in the 2nd grade they have a subject, they are meaningful and stable.

2. There are few stable relationships, there are few friendly couples in the 1st grade, the boundary between the members of the educational team and other people is poorly differentiated. In the second grade, there are many friendly couples, children who sympathize with each other. There is a sense of community, the integrity of the educational team. The children are aware of the place of each student in the classroom hierarchy.

3. The direction of actions and behavior of first-graders in most cases are dictated by the desire to attract the attention of the teacher and focus on his opinion. It can be said that students of the 2nd grade in their actions are more guided by their peers, by building relationships with them.

4. Despite some self-centeredness and orientation of first-graders to the teacher, they can both offer their help to their peers and ask for it. But in such a situation, either a peer praised by the teacher or a friend is most preferable. Second-graders willingly help each other, in their desire to help, they can even violate the educational norm (for example, to prompt).

5. First-graders are more inclined to carefully observe educational norms and rules, focus on them in building their own behavior and assessing the behavior of another. In the second grade, children are not so much guided by the rule. They can already assess the abilities and capabilities of another by comparing themselves with him.

These facts may indicate a pronounced age-related dynamics of interpersonal relationships during the younger years. school age. In general terms, it can be viewed as a movement from pronounced competition to cooperation and mutual assistance, from isolation and opposition to a peer to connection and community with him.

If in the first grade another child is a subject of comparison and self-affirmation, then for a second grader a peer is a partner in communication and joint activities.

This trend is confirmed by the following facts.

1. In the relationship of first-graders in the experimental situation, a high degree of emotional involvement prevails; in the relationship of second-graders, the average degree of emotional attitude towards a peer is most pronounced.

2. In the first grade, emotional involvement is predominantly negative, i.e. more often there was chagrin because of the success of another, support of an adult in a negative assessment of the activities of a friend, boasting, etc. In the second grade, on the contrary, a positive expression of an emotional attitude is more common, i.e. children protect a friend, rejoice in his success, emotionally support, give positive assessments.

3. Both in the first and in the second grades, the competitive nature of the attitude towards a peer was equally pronounced, which means that children more often demonstrate inadequate reactions to the praise and blame of another, failure to provide assistance, etc. Prosocial actions sometimes turn out to be due to the fear that a friend will be more successful (collect faster, draw better).

4. In the first grade, such an indicator of prosocial behavior as the focus of actions on oneself was most pronounced, while in the second grade, on the contrary, more actions are performed directed at a peer.

This may indicate that for first-graders, their own activities and interests are more important, and for second-graders, the activities and experiences of a friend are more important.

Comparison of facts allows us to draw analogies between the relationships and communication of children 4-6 and 6.5-8 years old and talk about some cyclicity in the development of relationships at these ages, which consists in the transition from a detached relationship to a partner to communication and community with him. Here, the development of awareness of the “image of oneself” is also manifested. The movement goes from isolation, separation of oneself, from awareness of one's capabilities through opposition with others to community and unity, to friendship and connection, which has great importance for self-realization.

1. A distinctive feature of communication and interactions of children of primary school age is their orientation towards the adoption of norms of behavior. At the beginning of primary school age, normative behavior is guided by the assessment of an adult; by the end of this age, it is internalized and becomes an internal regulator of behavior.

2. Throughout the primary school age, interpersonal relationships have their own dynamics, which consists in moving from the competitive nature of the relationship to a peer and focus on oneself to community with a peer, to increased selectivity and personal focus on a peer.

3. At each age stage of primary school age, individual variants of attitude towards a peer are found. At the beginning of education in the lower grades of the school, the competitive type of attitude is most common, by the end - competitive, complicit, unstable types of attitude are represented approximately equally, the number of children with a normative type decreases, which is confirmed by the age dynamics described above.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Abramenkova V.V. Compassion and compassion in the children's picture of the world. - M.: ECO, 1999.

2. Bozhovich L.I. Personality and its formation in childhood . - M: "Enlightenment", 1988.

3. Bodalev A.A. Communication and formation of the student's personality. - M., 1989.

4. Vygotsky L.S. Age problem. - St.Petersburg: Soyuz, 1999.

5. Davydov V.V. The theory of developmental learning. - M.: INTOR, 1996.

6. Development of intellectual abilities in children M.: Publishing house: New school 1996

7. Kolominsky Ya.L. Social Psychology school class. - Minsk, 1997.

8. Leontiev A.A. "Psychology of communication" - M: "Enlightenment", 2005

9. Lisina M.I. Communication, personality and psyche of the child. - Moscow-Voronezh, 1997.

10. Interpersonal relationships of a child from birth to seven years. / Ed. E.O. Smirnova. - Moscow-Voronezh, 2001.

11. Mukhina B.C. Six year old child at school. - M., 1986.

12. Mukhina B.C. Developmental psychology: Textbook for university students.-M.: Ed. Center "Academy", 1997.

13. Myasishchev V.N. Psychology of relations. M .: Publishing house “Inst. psychol. "; Voronezh: NPO "MODEK", 1995.

14. Petrovsky A.V. Developmental and pedagogical psychology. -M., 1979.

15. Petrovsky A.V. Personal development. -M., 1977.

16. Practical psychology of education. / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. - M.: TC "Sphere", 2000.

17. mental development younger students. / Ed. V.V. Davydov. - M.: "Pedagogy", 1990.

18. Psychological problems educational activity of the student. / Ed. V.V. Davydov. - M., 1977.

19. Psychological and pedagogical features of the development of the personality of a younger student. - Penza, 1993.

20. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. – Ch.6. Human consciousness. - V.2. - M .: Pedagogy, 1989. - 156-192.

21. Smirnova E.O. Child psychology. - M.: "School-press", 1997.

22. Smirnova E.O. Correlation of interpersonal relations in early ontogenesis. / Questions of psychology - 1994, No. 6, p. 5 - 15.

23. Elkonin D.B. Mental development in childhood. / Ed. DI. Feldstein. - Moscow-Voronezh, 1997.

24. Elkonin D.B. Psychology of teaching younger students. M., 1974.

25. Elkonin D.B. Intellectual capabilities of younger schoolchildren and the content of education // Age-related opportunities for mastering knowledge. -M., 1966.

26. Reader by developmental psychology. / Ed. DI. Feldstein. - M.: Ins-t practical psychology, 1996.

27. Tsukerman G.A. joint educational activity as the basis for developing the ability to learn. M., 1992.

28. Tsukerman G.A. Why do children study together. - M., 1985.

29. Yakobson S.G. Psychological problems of ethical development of children. - M .: "Pedagogy", 1984.

Campbell soup, Cream of Potato, 2008

A couple of years ago, Warhol-famous Campbell soup redesigned its packaging using neuromarketing. The three companies have been working on change for almost two years. These companies are Innerscope Research Inc ., Merchant Mechanics , and Olson Zaltman Associates . As Carl Marci of Innerscope Research, Inc. rightly pointed out, “Companies that rely on traditional methods gain only a conscious understanding of what is happening and miss a critical component of what drives our behavior. The vast majority of processes in the brain are subconscious. Emotional involvement is a subconscious process, and it is simply impossible to determine this involvement through surveys and focus groups” (Williams, 2010).

Campbell has learned first-hand that packaging changes that are praised in focus groups do not lead to significant changes in sales. And the company decided to turn to new methods. According to Merchant Mechanics' Matthew Tullman, Campbell did a lot of preparation for the study, and they didn't rely on just one type of biometric methodologies. Campbell, we must pay tribute to the company, tries to use everything in general effective methods to gain knowledge about your product and your customers.

The results of the study then generated a lot of criticism. Campbell was accused of betraying tradition and following pseudoscience. Some have been outraged - how can you change the great American design based on a study with only 40 subjects (Bostwick, 2010)?! But, as it often turns out, journalists have distorted the essence. So, in this neuromarketing study, at least 110 people participated in eye tracking and pupil measurement (pupillometry), and about 1300 people participated in videographic behavioral analysis and analysis of facial expressions. In addition, more than 250 surveys were conducted at the soup racks in the supermarket. All people were ordinary buyers, not members of a focus group selected and nurtured over the years.

No one says that neuromarketing is a panacea and the solution to all marketing problems. It's just a very, very good tool. And the company, considering all aspects, preferred to make implementations only partially, leaving many elements as they were. See what creamy potato soup looks like today. Company. In addition, I was careful not to make significant changes with the packages of other soups.

The hopeful moment in resolving the emotional-rational dichotomy of people's involvement in the quality assurance process is the following: progress in this direction can be made before the full emotional involvement of the top management of the enterprise comes. To begin with, it is enough to get them to recognize the fact that focusing on quality is a wise and competent policy. The rapid launch of a comprehensive quality assurance process very soon becomes an organic part of the company's activities. Or, perhaps, it is thanks to such a rapid start that it turns into one. This process becomes effective even before it is accepted by all employees on emotional level. But to put it into operation, a critical mass of interested workers is required, and not always constituting the majority of the team. Such a critical mass occurs when people begin to realize that their ideas about quality do not meet modern requirements. It's easy to be bold in a crowd, but it's much harder to take the risk of being the first.

It would be ideal to involve the CEO in the quality issue both emotionally and rationally. But the basis for choosing the right path for the organization is the rational approach of most top managers. Having studied the positive experience of other organizations and realizing the benefits of quality assurance to improve the operation of their enterprise, its leaders begin to understand CQP and provide at least minimal, but obvious support for its implementation. Their emotional involvement will come later. After all, from a pragmatic point of view, it is the behavior of senior leaders that matters, not their inner state.

It is not unusual that when we are talking about senior leaders, rational involvement in CQP often precedes emotional involvement. But at the level of ordinary workers, everything starts with the latter. People suddenly realize that management intends to give them the right to make decisions and significantly, sometimes even radically expand their ability to exercise control over their daily work. This is extremely inspiring for the workers.

After a certain time, when the positive impact of quality efforts on the activities of companies in general and individual employees in particular becomes obvious, an increasing number of managers begin to feel their own emotional involvement in this process. Leaders feel satisfied with the positive impact that quality improvement has on the morale of their subordinates. They begin to take pride in the fact that they lead a competitive organization that always fulfills its obligations. In addition, they are pleased that they are becoming an integral part of the process, which includes many solemn events, during which the distinguished ones are thanked and awarded.

At the same time, the intellectual commitment to CQP on the part of the rank and file is growing. They begin to think like this: “All this is fine, but how does it affect the market value of the company's shares? Are we really listening to the needs of our consumers? What next step is required for the evolutionary development of this process?

After both emotional and rational commitment to a common concept ( simple part) and the implementation mechanism (difficult part) of CQP of employees at all levels, the desire for continuous improvement will become an obligatory component of the corporate culture and an organic part of the mission of the organization.

CONSEQUENCES OF TRUSTING WORKERS

Keeping in mind popular slogans such as "truthful advertising" or "total transparency of organizations", it should not be forgotten that the ability of management to rely on the ability and goodwill of employees is the most important condition for the implementation of CQP.

If the company has managed to involve the entire workforce in efforts to comprehensively improve activities, then it will simultaneously carry out numerous activities in this direction. In this case, it is almost impossible to manage the implementation of many ideas put forward by employees from above. The trust of leaders in subordinates from an act of good will, requiring a certain courage, is gradually turning into an urgent need. The intellectual consent of managers to implement CQP opens the floodgates for a flow of action that sweeps away managerial uncertainty and hesitation.

During a seminar given by the authors of the book at Baby Bell in 1990, its president stated, "We can't trust our employees." The tense silence in the hall indicated that not everyone agreed with this statement, but the rest of the time was devoted to discussing ways to turn the staff into trustworthy people. At the same time, with such an attitude towards subordinates, it was not surprising that the organization was disturbed by ethical problems. It became obvious that the adjustment of the views of the president of the company or his replacement is the main condition under which efforts in the field of quality can become a reality. Obviously, personality changes of this kind are extremely difficult. It can be considered an axiom: the more significant the required changes, the more painful they occur. It should be borne in mind: only a self-confident person is able to be a true leader. Doubting people can at best count on the position of manager.

For inexplicable reasons, we tend to trust strangers more than those we know well. Let's illustrate what has been said. In the morning, going to his office, a typical American executive gets into the car and makes sure to use the brakes. At the same time, he is not at all interested in who assembled the brake system, what language the assemblers spoke. Every time he passes a green traffic light, he is calm, because he is absolutely sure that pedestrians will miss him, since they are obliged to stop when the red light is on for them. Arriving at the building where his office is located, he parks his car in the parking lot for the executive parking lot and calmly takes the elevator to the floor where the executive offices are located. He does not even have the thought to find out who and when checked the serviceability of the elevator. Thus, all the way from home to his workplace, this leader trusted his life to dozens, if not hundreds of people who were completely unfamiliar to him. But, once in completely safe conditions at his own desk, the boss begins to painfully doubt whether it is worth delegating to an NN employee the right to independently manage $ 25, although he has worked at the company for twenty-seven years!

Here is another example from the area traffic. Imagine that you are driving a car, and there are 12-14 more cars in front of the intersection where the traffic light is red. You can see the traffic light from your seat, but when it turns green, you don't move. Why? Obviously, everyone wants to quickly skip the intersection while the traffic light is open. But you are still waiting because the car in front of you has not moved yet, waiting for the car in front of you to move, and so on. In the end, the entire car queue comes into motion. But the farther you are from the intersection, the more you have to hurry to make up for lost time spent waiting. At the same time, very few manage to cross the intersection before switching the signal. Now suppose that all drivers in a similar situation know each other and trust the reactions of all participants in the movement. Then, seeing

40 green light, you will immediately take your foot off the brake pedal and step on the gas. You will be absolutely sure that all the drivers in front of you will do the same. As a result, the entire car queue will break away at the same time and a much larger number of drivers will be able to pass the intersection.

The question is, what does the last example have to do with the quality assurance process? The situation where you wait until the car in front of you, whose driver is unknown to you and whose intentions are unknown, will not move, serves as a model for the so-called micromanagement. With this form of management, no action is taken until the top management team has passed through the entire chain of command. None of the subordinates lift a finger, not knowing about the intentions of their superiors, waiting until they realize the need to act. There is no trust in each other, no one wants to take risks and take responsibility. Only routine activities are performed. It seems that everything in the company is measured and orderly, but there is a high probability of being late and not using the temporarily opened opportunities (figuratively speaking, not having time to pass the intersection at the green traffic light). In the second case, each driver knows that everyone is united by a common goal - to ensure the crossing of the intersection the maximum number cars - and everyone plays by the same rules (start off at the green light). In this case, people can start acting at the same time, but this requires trusting cooperation.

By trusting subordinates, leaders actually do not risk anything. In general, employees are well aware of their duties and will never deliberately act to the detriment of the organization, because even in conversations at home or with friends they say: "My company." The sense of commitment to one's work that comes through in this expression is very real and can be relied upon. Out of the first 25,000 proposals put forward by Pan Revere Insurance Group employees, only 11 were not implemented, and none of these ideas lay idle for more than two days, according to research by quality specialists. Any manager would appreciate the timely implementation of 24,989 proposals, while easily accepting 11 temporary failures. Similarly, in the first four years of the Quality First program, the Insurance Center did not reject any of the 8,180 ideas put forward by employees.